Résumés
Résumé
Objectif Le cannabis est la drogue la plus consommée au sein de la population générale, mais sa prévalence d’usage reste plus élevée chez les personnes souffrant de troubles mentaux graves. De plus, les données actuelles démontrent les effets délétères du cannabis sur la symptomatologie de ces maladies. L’étude transversale ci-présente vise donc à évaluer l’impact de la consommation du cannabis sur la symptomatologie psychiatrique des personnes avec un trouble mental grave en contrôlant l’effet des variables confondantes de l’âge, du sexe ainsi que de la consommation concomitante d’alcool ou de stimulants.
Méthode Des analyses secondaires ont été effectuées sur les données de 72 participants provenant d’une étude antérieure. Leurs consommations de cannabis, d’alcool et de stimulants ont respectivement été mesurées à l’aide du Cannabis Use Problems Identification Test (CUPIT), du Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) et de la question sur la fréquence de consommation du Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 – Clinician Version pour les troubles liés à l’usage des stimulants (SCID-5-CV-TLUS). En lien avec la symptomatologie psychiatrique, celle-ci a été mesurée à l’aide du modèle à 5 sous-échelles du Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS).
Résultats Différents modèles linéaires explicatifs des symptômes du PANSS ont été réalisés à l’aide d’une combinaison de variables indépendantes, soit l’âge, le sexe, le CUPIT, l’AUDIT et la question sur la fréquence de consommation du SCID-5-CV-TLUS. Le modèle explicatif des symptômes d’excitation est statistiquement significatif (F = 4,629, p = 0,001) et il permet de prédire 20,4 % de la variance de ces symptômes (R2ajusté = 0,204). Ici, le CUPIT est la variable qui influence le plus le modèle (ß = 0,381 ; p < 0,001). Le modèle explicatif des symptômes positifs est également statistiquement significatif (F = 3,631, p = 0,006) et il permet de prédire 15,6 % de la variance de ces symptômes (R2ajusté = 0,156). Or, le CUPIT n’influencerait pas de manière statistiquement significative ce modèle (ß = 0,125 ; p = 0,272), mais la question sur la fréquence de consommation du SCID-5-CV-TLUS l’influencerait (ß = 0,399 ; p = 0,001). De plus, la question sur la fréquence de consommation du SCID-5-CV-TLUS influence également le modèle explicatif des symptômes d’excitation (ß = 0,273 ; p = 0,022).
Conclusion Bien que d’autres études, idéalement longitudinales, soient nécessaires pour confirmer l’impact péjoratif du cannabis sur les symptômes d’excitation, l’étude ci-présente réitère l’importance de dépister et de prendre en charge les habitudes de consommation de drogues, particulièrement le cannabis, chez les personnes atteintes de troubles mentaux graves.
Mots-clés :
- cannabis,
- troubles mentaux graves,
- schizophrénie,
- trouble bipolaire,
- dépression
Abstract
Objective Cannabis is the most commonly used drug in the general population, but its prevalence of use remains higher among people suffering from severe mental disorders. Nevertheless, current cannabis research showed it to be deleterious on psychiatric symptoms, especially among patients with severe mental disorders. This present cross-sectional study aims to evaluate the impact of cannabis consumption on the psychiatric symptomatology of people with a serious mental disorder by controlling for the confounding variables of age, sex and concomitant alcohol or stimulant consumption.
Method Secondary analyses were performed on data from 72 participants from a previous study. Their use of cannabis, alcohol and stimulants was measured using the Cannabis Use Problems Identification Test (CUPIT), the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the frequency of use question from the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5–Clinician Version for Stimulant Use Disorders (SCID-5-CV-TLUS), respectively. Their psychiatric symptoms were measured using the five subscale model of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS).
Results Different linear explanatory models of PANSS symptoms were carried out using a combination of independent variables, i.e. age, sex, CUPIT, AUDIT and the question on consumption frequency of the SCID-5–CV-TLUS. The explanatory model of excitement symptoms is statistically significant (F = 4.629, p = 0.001) and it makes it possible to predict 20.4% of the variance of these symptoms (adjusted R2 = 0.204). In this model, CUPIT is the variable that most influences the model (ß = 0.381; p < 0.001). The explanatory model for positive symptoms is also statistically significant (F = 3.631, p = 0.006) and that makes it possible to predict 15.6% of the variance in these symptoms (adjusted R2 = 0.156). However, the CUPIT would not influence this model in a statistically significant way (ß = 0.125; p = 0.272), but the question on the frequency of consumption of the SCID-5-CV-TLUS would influence it (ß = 0.399; p = 0.001). In addition, the question on the frequency of consumption of the SCID-5-CV-TLUS also influences the explanatory model of excitement symptoms (ß = 0.273; p = 0.022).
Conclusion Although further studies, ideally longitudinal, are needed to confirm the deleterious effect of cannabis on excitement symptoms, the present study reiterates the importance of screening and managing consumption habits of drugs, particularly cannabis, in people with serious mental disorders.
Keywords:
- cannabis,
- severe mental disorders,
- schizophrenia,
- bipolar disorder,
- depression
Parties annexes
Bibliographie
- Aghaei, A. M., Spillane, L. U., Pittman, B., Flynn, L. T., De Aquino, J. P., Nia, A. B. et Ranganathan, M. (2023). Sex Differences in the Acute Effects of Oral THC : A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Human Laboratory Study. medRxiv : the preprint server for health sciences. https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.11.29.23299193
- Agrawal, A., Nurnberger, J. I. et Lynskey, M. T. (2011). Cannabis involvement in individuals with bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Research, 185(3), 459-461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.007
- Ahmed, S., Roth, R. M., Stanciu, C. N. et Brunette, M. F. (2021). The Impact of THC and CBD in Schizophrenia : A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.694394
- Akoglu, H. (2018). User’s guide to correlation coefficients. Turkish Journal of Emergency Medicine, 18(3), 91-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjem.2018.08.001
- Allen, J. P., Litten, R. Z., Fertig, J. B. et Babor, T. (1997). A Review of Research on the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). Alcoholism : Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(4), 613-619. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1997.tb03811.x
- Altamura, A. C., Serati, M. et Buoli, M. (2015). Is duration of illness really influencing outcome in major psychoses ? Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 69(6), 1685-1699. https://doi.org/10.3109/08039488.2014.990919
- Altman, D. G. et Royston, P. (2006). The cost of dichotomising continuous variables. BMJ, 332(7549), 1080.1. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.332.7549.1080
- Anderson, A. E., Mansolf, M., Reise, S. P., Savitz, A., Salvadore, G., Li, Q. et Bilder, R. M. (2017). Measuring pathology using the PANSS across diagnoses : Inconsistency of the positive symptom domain across schizophrenia, schizoaffective, and bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Research, 258, 207-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.08.009
- Argote, M., Sescousse, G., Brunelin, J., Fakra, E., Nourredine, M. et Rolland, B. (2022). Association between formal thought disorder and cannabis use : a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia, 8(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41537-022-00286-0
- Arkell, T. R., Kevin, R. C., Vinckenbosch, F., Lintzeris, N., Theunissen, E., Ramaekers, J. G. et McGregor, I. S. (2022). Sex differences in acute cannabis effects revisited : Results from two randomized, controlled trials. Addiction Biology, 27(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/adb.13125
- Armstrong, R. A. (2014). When to use the Bonferroni correction. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 34(5), 502-508. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12131
- Athanassiou, M., Dumais, A., Zouaoui, I. et Potvin, S. (2023). The clouded debate : A systematic review of comparative longitudinal studies examining the impact of recreational cannabis legalization on key public health outcomes. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1060656
- Bahorik, A. L., Newhill, C. E. et Eack, S. M. (2013). Characterizing the longitudinal patterns of substance use among individuals diagnosed with serious mental illness after psychiatric hospitalization. Addiction, 108(7), 1259-1269. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12153
- Bao, Y., Qiu, Y., Yan, S., Jia, Z., Li, S., Lian, Z., Mu, Y. et Liu, Z. (2013). Pattern of Drug Use and Depressive Symptoms among Amphetamine Type Stimulants Users in Beijing and Guangdong Province, China. PLoS ONE, 8(4), e60544. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0060544
- Bashford, J., Flett, R. et Copeland, J. (2010). The Cannabis Use Problems Identification Test (CUPIT) : development, reliability, concurrent and predictive validity among adolescents and adults. Addiction, 105(4), 615-625. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02859.x
- Bassir Nia, A., Orejarena, M. J., Flynn, L., Luddy, C., D’Souza, D. C., Skosnik, P. D., Pittman, B. et Ranganathan, M. (2022). Sex differences in the acute effects of intravenous (IV) delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Psychopharmacology, 239(5), 1621-1628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-022-06135-3
- Beaudoin, M., Dellazizzo, L., Giguère, S., Guay, J.-P., Giguère, C.-E., Potvin, S. et Dumais, A. (2023). Is There a Dose–Response Relationship Between Cannabis Use and Violence ? A Longitudinal Study in Individuals with Severe Mental Disorders. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. https://doi.org/10.1089/can.2022.0038
- Botsford, S. L., Yang, S. et George, T. P. (2020). Cannabis and Cannabinoids in Mood and Anxiety Disorders : Impact on Illness Onset and Course, and Assessment of Therapeutic Potential. The American Journal on Addictions, 29(1), 9-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.12963
- Bourque, J., Mendrek, A., Durand, M., Lakis, N., Lipp, O., Stip, E., Lalonde, P., Grignon, S. et Potvin, S. (2013). Cannabis abuse is associated with better emotional memory in schizophrenia : A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research : Neuroimaging, 214(1), 24-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.05.012
- Bradley, K. A., McDonell, M. B., Bush, K., Kivlahan, D. R., Diehr, P. et Fihn, S. D. (1998). The AUDIT Alcohol Consumption Questions : Reliability, Validity, and Responsiveness to Change in Older Male Primary Care Patients. Alcoholism : Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(8), 1842-1849. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03991.x
- Centre de recherche de l’Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal. (s. d.). Historique. Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal. Consulté 28 mars 2024, à l’adresse https://web.archive.org/web/20181209082041/ http://www.iusmm.ca:80/recherche/portrait/historique1.html
- Chen, H., Cohen, P. et Chen, S. (2007). Biased odds ratios from dichotomization of age. Statistics in Medicine, 26(18), 3487-3497. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.2737
- CIUSSS de l’Est-de-l’Île-de-Montréal. (2024, janvier 3). IUSMM. Gouvernement du Québec.
- Cuttler, C., Mischley, L. K. et Sexton, M. (2016). Sex Differences in Cannabis Use and Effects : A Cross-Sectional Survey of Cannabis Users. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 1(1), 166-175. https://doi.org/10.1089/can.2016.0010
- Desfossés, J., Stip, E., Bentaleb, L. A., Lipp, O., Chiasson, J.-P., Furtos, A., Venne, K., Kouassi, E. et Potvin, S. (2012). Plasma Endocannabinoid Alterations in Individuals with Substance Use Disorder are Dependent on the “Mirror Effect” of Schizophrenia. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00085
- Desfossés, J., Stip, E., Bentaleb, L. A. et Potvin, S. (2010). Endocannabinoids and Schizophrenia. Pharmaceuticals, 3(10), 3101-3126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph3103101
- Feingold, D., Rehm, J. et Lev-Ran, S. (2017). Cannabis use and the course and outcome of major depressive disorder : A population based longitudinal study. Psychiatry Research, 251, 225-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.02.027
- Gouron, D., Vignault, C., Quintin, J., Semaan, W. et Djahanbakhsh Asli, K. (2020). Impacts de la légalisation du cannabis récréatif sur la santé mentale : une recension des écrits. Santé mentale au Québec, 45(1), 201-220. https://doi.org/10.7202/1070247ar
- Green, B., Young, R. et Kavanagh, D. (2005). Cannabis use and misuse prevalence among people with psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 187(4), 306-313. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.187.4.306
- Halladay, J. E., Boyle, M. H., Munn, C., Jack, S. M. et Georgiades, K. (2019). Sex Differences in the Association Between Cannabis Use and Suicidal Ideation and Attempts, Depression, and Psychological Distress Among Canadians. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 64(5), 345-350. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743718804542
- Hasan, A., von Keller, R., Friemel, C. M., Hall, W., Schneider, M., Koethe, D., Leweke, F. M., Strube, W. et Hoch, E. (2020). Cannabis use and psychosis : a review of reviews. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 270(4), 403-412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-019-01068-z
- Hasin, D. et Walsh, C. (2020). Cannabis Use, Cannabis Use Disorder, and Comorbid Psychiatric Illness : A Narrative Review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10010015
- Hindley, G., Beck, K., Borgan, F., Ginestet, C. E., McCutcheon, R., Kleinloog, D., Ganesh, S., Radhakrishnan, R., D’Souza, D. C. et Howes, O. D. (2020). Psychiatric symptoms caused by cannabis constituents : a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(4), 344-353. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30074-2
- Hôpital Louis-Hippolyte-Lafontaine. (1991). Bref historique de l’Hôpital Saint-Jean-de-Dieu. Bibliothèque du personnel. https://ciusss-estmtl.gouv.qc.ca/sites/ciusssemtl/files/media/document/historique%201976.pdf
- Hunt, G. E., Malhi, G. S., Lai, H. M. X. et Cleary, M. (2020). Prevalence of comorbid substance use in major depressive disorder in community and clinical settings, 1990-2019 : Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 266, 288-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.141
- IBM Corp. (2020). IBM SPSS Statistics for Mac (Version 29.0). IBM Corp.
- Kalk, N. J., Robins, J. E., Ross, K. R., Pritchard, M., Lynskey, M. T., Curtis, V. A. et Morley, K. I. (2022). Substance use in psychiatric crisis : relationship to violence. Psychological Medicine, 52(9), 1691-1697. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720003451
- Kirschner, M., Aleman, A. et Kaiser, S. (2017). Secondary negative symptoms–A review of mechanisms, assessment and treatment. Schizophrenia Research, 186, 29-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2016.05.003
- Kuss, O. (2013). The danger of dichotomizing continuous variables : A visualization. Teaching Statistics, 35(2), 78-79. https://doi.org/10.1111/test.12006
- Leadbeater, B. J., Ames, M. E. et Linden-Carmichael, A. N. (2019). Age-varying effects of cannabis use frequency and disorder on symptoms of psychosis, depression and anxiety in adolescents and adults. Addiction, 114(2), 278-293. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14459
- Lev-Ran, S., Le Foll, B., McKenzie, K., George, T. P. et Rehm, J. (2013a). Bipolar disorder and co-occurring cannabis use disorders : Characteristics, co-morbidities and clinical correlates. Psychiatry Research, 209(3), 459-465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.12.014
- Lev-Ran, S., Le Foll, B., McKenzie, K., George, T. P. et Rehm, J. (2013b). Cannabis use and cannabis use disorders among individuals with mental illness. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(6), 589-598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.12.021
- L’Heureux, S., Huot-Lavoie, M., Bergeron, A., Bergeron, C., Blouin, B.-P. et Roy, M.-A. (2024). Effect of Cannabis Legalization in Canada on the Incidence of Psychosis Consultations in Quebec City’s Psychiatric Emergency Services. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437241232901
- Li, J., Wang, H., Li, M., Shen, Q., Li, X., Zhang, Y., Peng, J., Rong, X. et Peng, Y. (2020). Effect of alcohol use disorders and alcohol intake on the risk of subsequent depressive symptoms : a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction, 115(7), 1224-1243. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14935
- Maggu, G., Choudhary, S., Jaishy, R., Chaudhury, S., Saldanha, D. et Borasi, M. (2023). Cannabis use and its relationship with bipolar disorder : A systematic review and meta-analysis. Industrial psychiatry journal, 32(2), 202-214. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_43_23
- Matheson, J., Sproule, B., Di Ciano, P., Fares, A., Le Foll, B., Mann, R. E. et Brands, B. (2020). Sex differences in the acute effects of smoked cannabis : evidence from a human laboratory study of young adults. Psychopharmacology, 237(2), 305-316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-019-05369-y
- McKetin, R., Leung, J., Stockings, E., Huo, Y., Foulds, J., Lappin, J. M., Cumming, C., Arunogiri, S., Young, J. T., Sara, G., Farrell, M. et Degenhardt, L. (2019). Mental health outcomes associated with the use of amphetamines : A systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine, 16, 81-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2019.09.014
- Myles, H., Myles, N. et Large, M. (2016). Cannabis use in first episode psychosis : Meta-analysis of prevalence, and the time course of initiation and continued use. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 50(3), 208-219. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867415599846
- Oberbarnscheidt, T. et Miller, N. S. (2020). The Impact of Cannabidiol on Psychiatric and Medical Conditions. Journal of Clinical Medicine Research, 12(7), 393-403. https://doi.org/10.14740/jocmr4159
- Onaemo, V. N., Fawehinmi, T. O. et D’Arcy, C. (2021). Comorbid Cannabis Use Disorder with Major Depression and Generalized Anxiety Disorder : A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis of Nationally Representative Epidemiological Surveys. Journal of Affective Disorders, 281, 467-475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.043
- Osório, F. L., Loureiro, S. R., Hallak, J. E. C., Machado-de-Sousa, J. P., Ushirohira, J. M., Baes, C. V. W., Apolinario, T. D., Donadon, M. F., Bolsoni, L. M., Guimarães, T., Fracon, V. S., Silva-Rodrigues, A. P. C., Pizeta, F. A., Souza, R. M., Sanches, R. F., dos Santos, R. G., Martin-Santos, R. et Crippa, J. A. S. (2019). Clinical validity and intrarater and test–retest reliability of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 – Clinician Version (SCID-5-CV). Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 73(12), 754-760. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12931
- Patel, S. J., Khan, S., M, S. et Hamid, P. (2020). The Association Between Cannabis Use and Schizophrenia : Causative or Curative ? A Systematic Review. Cureus. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.9309
- Pinto, J. V., Medeiros, L. S., Santana da Rosa, G., Santana de Oliveira, C. E., Crippa, J. A. de S., Passos, I. C. et Kauer-Sant’Anna, M. (2019). The prevalence and clinical correlates of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder among patients with bipolar disorder : A systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 101, 78-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.04.004
- Potvin, S., Bourque, J., Durand, M., Lipp, O., Lalonde, P., Stip, E., Grignon, S. et Mendrek, A. (2013). The Neural Correlates of Mental Rotation Abilities in Cannabis-Abusing Patients with Schizophrenia : An fMRI Study. Schizophrenia Research and Treatment, 2013, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/543842
- Potvin, S., Pelletier, J., Grot, S., Hébert, C., Barr, A. M. et Lecomte, T. (2018). Cognitive deficits in individuals with methamphetamine use disorder : A meta-analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 80, 154-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.01.021
- Potvin, S., Stip, E. et Roy, J.-Y. (2004). Schizophrénie et cannabinoïdes. Drogues, santé et société, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.7202/008536ar
- Rault, O., Romeo, B., Butlen-Ducuing, F., Rari, E., Benyamina, A. et Martelli, C. (2022). Impact of cannabis use and its cessation on the dosage and the efficacy of antipsychotic drugs in in- and outpatients with schizophrenia taking medication : A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 156, 713-721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.11.012
- Rotermann, M. (2023). Using the Severity of Dependence Scale to examine cannabis consumers with impaired control in Canada. Health Reports, 34(6).
- Sandstrom, A., Sahiti, Q., Pavlova, B. et Uher, R. (2019). Offspring of parents with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. Psychiatric Genetics, 29(5), 160-169. https://doi.org/10.1097/YPG.0000000000000240
- Santé Canada et Statistique Canada. (2024). Enquête canadienne sur le cannabis de 2023 : Sommaire. https://www.canada.ca/fr/sante-canada/services/drogues-medicaments/cannabis/recherches-donnees/enquete-canadienne-cannabis-2023-sommaire.html
- Satre, D. D., Bahorik, A., Zaman, T. et Ramo, D. (2018). Psychiatric Disorders and Comorbid Cannabis Use. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 79(5). https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.18ac12267
- Schoeler, T., Monk, A., Sami, M. B., Klamerus, E., Foglia, E., Brown, R., Camuri, G., Altamura, A. C., Murray, R. et Bhattacharyya, S. (2016). Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis : a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(3), 215-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00363-6
- Semahegn, A., Torpey, K., Manu, A., Assefa, N., Tesfaye, G. et Ankomah, A. (2020). Psychotropic medication non-adherence and its associated factors among patients with major psychiatric disorders : a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews, 9(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-1274-3
- Sexton, M., Cuttler, C. et Mischley, L. K. (2019). A Survey of Cannabis Acute Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms : Differential Responses Across User Types and Age. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 25(3), 326-335. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2018.0319
- Sideli, L., Quigley, H., La Cascia, C. et Murray, R. M. (2020). Cannabis Use and the Risk for Psychosis and Affective Disorders. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 16(1), 22-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504263.2019.1674991
- Sorkhou, M., Johnstone, S., Kivlichan, A. E., Castle, D. J. et George, T. P. (2022). Does cannabis use predict aggressive or violent behavior in psychiatric populations ? A systematic review. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 48(6), 631-643. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2022.2118060
- Statistique Canada. (2023). Research to Insights : Cannabis in Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/11-631-x/11-631-x2023006-eng.pdf?st=uK6wCbSi
- Stip, E. (2014). Interface santé mentale, société et toxicomanie – une thématique et deux illustrations : l’usage médical du cannabis et le hikikomori. Santé mentale au Québec, 39(2), 7. https://doi.org/10.7202/1027828ar
- Stubbs, B., Vancampfort, D., Veronese, N., Solmi, M., Gaughran, F., Manu, P., Rosenbaum, S., De Hert, M. et Fornaro, M. (2016). The prevalence and predictors of obstructive sleep apnea in major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia : A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 197, 259-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.02.060
- Tatar, O., Abdel-Baki, A., Dyachenko, A., Bakouni, H., Bahremand, A., Tibbo, P. G., Crockford, D., Roy, M.-A., Copeland, J., Fischer, B., Lecomte, T., Côté, J., Ouellet-Plamondon, C., L’Heureux, S., Villeneuve, M. et Jutras-Aswad, D. (2023). Evaluating preferences for online psychological interventions to decrease cannabis use in young adults with psychosis : An observational study. Psychiatry Research, 326, 115276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115276
- Tourjman, S. V., Buck, G., Jutras-Aswad, D., Khullar, A., McInerney, S., Saraf, G., Pinto, J. V., Potvin, S., Poulin, M.-J., Frey, B. N., Kennedy, S. H., Lam, R. W., MacQueen, G., Milev, R., Parikh, S. V., Ravindran, A., McIntyre, R. S., Schaffer, A., Taylor, V. H., … Beaulieu, S. (2023). Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Task Force Report : A Systematic Review and Recommendations of Cannabis use in Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 68(5), 299-311. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437221099769
- Trull, T. J., Wycoff, A. M., Lane, S. P., Carpenter, R. W. et Brown, W. C. (2016). Cannabis and alcohol use, affect and impulsivity in psychiatric out-patients’ daily lives. Addiction, 111(11), 2052-2059. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13471
- United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2023). World Drug Report 2023. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/world-drug-report-2023.html
- Vandergaag, M., Hoffman, T., Remijsen, M., Hijman, R., Dehaan, L., Vanmeiljel, B., Vanharten, P., Valmaggia, L., Dehert, M. et Cuijpers, A. (2006). The five-factor model of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale II : A ten-fold cross-validation of a revised model. Schizophrenia Research, 85(1-3), 280-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.021
- Voce, A., Calabria, B., Burns, R., Castle, D. et McKetin, R. (2019). A Systematic Review of the Symptom Profile and Course of Methamphetamine-Associated Psychosis. Substance Use & Misuse, 54(4), 549-559. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2018.1521430
- Wallwork, R. S., Fortgang, R., Hashimoto, R., Weinberger, D. R. et Dickinson, D. (2012). Searching for a consensus five-factor model of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 137(1-3), 246-250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2012.01.031
- Yergeau, E. et Poirier, M. (2021). SPSS à l’UdeS. https://spss.espaceweb.usherbrooke.ca/
- Zamarripa, C. A., Vandrey, R. et Spindle, T. R. (2022). Factors that Impact the Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Effects of Cannabis : a Review of Human Laboratory Studies. Current Addiction Reports, 9(4), 608-621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-022-00429-4
- Zhornitsky, S., Rizkallah, É., Pampoulova, T., Chiasson, J.-P., Lipp, O., Stip, E. et Potvin, S. (2012). Sensation-seeking, social anhedonia, and impulsivity in substance use disorder patients with and without schizophrenia and in non-abusing schizophrenia patients. Psychiatry Research, 200(2-3), 237-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.07.046
- Zhornitsky, S., Stip, E., Desfossés, J., Pampoulova, T., Rizkallah, É., Rompré, P.-P., Bentaleb, L. A., Lipp, O., Chiasson, J.-P., Gendron, A. et Potvin, S. (2011). Evolution of Substance use, Neurological and Psychiatric Symptoms in Schizophrenia and Substance use Disorder Patients : A 12-Week, Pilot, Case–Control Trial with Quetiapine. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00022
- Zimmerman, M., Morgan, T. A. et Stanton, K. (2018). The severity of psychiatric disorders. World Psychiatry, 17(3), 258-275. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20569