Résumés
Résumé
Cet article présente une revue bibliographique sur la désinfection des eaux de piscines par le brome, sur les mécanismes de formation et le mode d'action du désinfectant, l'acide hypobromeux. L'examen des principaux sous-produits de bromation (bromamines, trihalométhanes, acides haloacétiques, haloacétonitriles, haloaldéhydes, bromate, nitrosamines, etc.) montre que certains de ces sous-produits sont présents dans l'eau de piscine à des concentrations de quelques µg∙L-1 à quelques dizaines de µg∙L-1. L'étude de leur toxicité aiguë et chronique confirme que ces composés doivent être surveillés (en particulier l'acide dibromoacétique et le bromate) pour assurer la sécurité des nageurs et du personnel technique. D'autre part, l'étude de l'efficacité biocide du brome comparé au chlore, vis-à-vis des bactéries pathogènes présentes dans l'eau de piscine, démontre que les espèces de bactéries Escherichia coli et Enterococcus faecalis sont plus sensibles au brome, à la différence de Pseudomonas aeruginosa qui présente une plus grande résistance. De plus, sur le plan médical, plusieurs cas de dermatites de contact irritantes sont rapportés lors de l'utilisation du brome, même si certaines études révèlent que les bromamines sont non irritantes, inodores et désinfectantes. Cependant, le brome présente une plus grande activité bactéricide que le chlore dans des eaux légèrement alcalines et relativement chaudes et peut être alors une alternative au chlore dans le traitement des piscines atypiques, même s'il demeure beaucoup plus onéreux que le chlore.
Mots-clés :
- Brome,
- désinfection,
- sous-produit,
- activité bactéricide,
- toxicité
Abstract
This paper presents a bibliographical review on the disinfection of swimming pool water with bromine. The formation mechanisms and the mode of action of the disinfectant, hypobromous acid, are discussed. The review of the main bromination by-products (bromamines, trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles, bromate, haloaldehydes, nitrosamines, etc.) shows that some of these by-products are present in pool water at concentrations of a few µg∙L-1 to a few tens of µg∙L-1. The study for acute and chronic toxicity confirms that these compounds should be monitored (especially dibromoacetic acid and bromate) to ensure the safety of swimmers and technical staff. The biocidal effectiveness of bromine versus chlorine, against pathogenic bacteria present in swimming water, is detailed. It has been shown that the bacterial species Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus faecalis are more sensitive to bromine, unlike Pseudomonas aeruginosa that is resistant to bromine. It has also been reported several cases of irritant contact dermatitis when using bromine though some studies have revealed bromamines to be disinfecting, odourless and non-irritating. Nevertheless, bromine exhibits greater bactericidal activity than chlorine in slightly alkaline and warm water and could replace chlorine in the treatment of atypical swimming pools, although chlorine is less costly than bromine.
Keywords:
- Bromine,
- disinfection,
- by-product,
- bactericidal activity,
- toxicity
Parties annexes
Références bibliographiques
- AGENCE NATIONALE DE SÉCURITÉ SANITAIRE DE L'ALIMENTATION, DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT ET DU TRAVAIL (ANSES) (2010). Évaluation des risques sanitaires liés aux piscines. Partie 1 : piscines règlementées. Avis AFSSET, Saisine No. 2007-SA-0409, Maisons-Alfort, France, 252 p.
- AGENCE NATIONALE DE SÉCURITÉ SANITAIRE DE L'ALIMENTATION, DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT ET DU TRAVAIL (ANSES) (2011). Élaboration d’une valeur toxicologique de référence chronique par voie orale de l’hydrate de chloral. Avis ANSES, Saisine No. 2010-SA-0227, Maisons-Alfort, France, 50 p.
- AGENCE NATIONALE DE SÉCURITÉ SANITAIRE DE L'ALIMENTATION, DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT ET DU TRAVAIL (ANSES) (2013). Évaluation des risques sanitaires liés aux piscines. Partie 2 : bains à remous. Avis ANSES, Saisine No. 2007-SA-0409, Maisons-Alfort, France, 206 p.
- AGUS E. et D. SEDLAK (2010). Formation and fate of chlorination by-products in reverse osmosis desalination systems. Water Res., 44, 1616-1626.
- ALLONIER A.S., M. KHALANSKI et V. CAMEL (1999). Determination of dihaloacetonitriles and halophenols in chlorinated seawater. Talanta, 50, 227-236.
- AUBERT J., L. PETIT et E. GUTTIERREZ-GALINDO (1981). Study of the toxicity of nitrosamines to marine organisms. Rev. Int. Océanogr. Méd., 62, 23-31.
- AGENCE DE RÉGLEMENTATION DE LA LUTTE ANTIPARASITAIRE (ARLA) (2011). Réévaluation du 1-bromo-3-chloro-5,5- dimethylhydantoin, du 1,3-dichloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoin et du 1,3-dichloro-5-ethyl-5-methylhydantoin. Décision de réévaluation ARLA, Santé Canada, RVD2011-08, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 15 p.
- BALLMAIER D. et B. EPE (2006). DNA damage by bromate: Mechanism and consequences. Toxicology, 221, 166-171.
- BAUDISCH C., G. PANSCH et J. PRÖSCH (1997). Determination of volatile halogenated hydrocarbons in chlorinated swimming pool water. Research report. Außenstelle Schwerin, Landeshygieneinstitut Mecklenburg – Vorpommern (en allemand).
- BENOIT F. et R. JACKSON (1987). Trihalomethane formation in whirlpool spas. Water Res., 21 (3), 353-357.
- BERNARD A., S. CARBONNELLE, O. MICHEL, S.HIGUET, C. DE BURBURE, J.P. BUCHET et I. DOYLE (2003). Lung hyperpermeability and asthma prevalence in schoolchildren: Unexpected associations with the attendance at indoor chlorinated swimming pools. Occup. Environ. Med., 60 (6), 385-394.
- BOWMAN F.J., J.F. BORZELLECA et A.E. MUNSON (1978). The toxicity of some halomethanes in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharm., 44, 213-215.
- BROWN J.R., D.M. McLEAN et M.C. NIXON (1963). Bromine disinfection of swimming pools. Can. J. Public Health, 54, 267-270.
- BROWN J.R., D.M. McLEAN et M.C. NIXON (1964). Bromine disinfection of a large swimming pool. Can. J. Public Health, 55, 251-256.
- BRUNET R., F. BERNE et J. DE LAAT (2010). Sous-produits de chloration dans les eaux de piscines publiques. Revue l'Eau l'Industrie, les Nuisances, 333, 83-88.
- BULL R.J., J.R. MEIER, M. ROBINSON, H.P. RINGHAND, R.D. LAURIE et J.A. STOBER (1985). Evaluation of mutagenic and carcinogenic properties of chlorinated acetonitriles: by-products of chlorimeter. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 5, 1065-1074.
- BUTLER T.C. (1948). Bromal hydrate and chloral hydrate; a pharmacological contrast and its chemical basis. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 94 (4), 401-411.
- CANTOR K.P., C.M. VILLANUEVA, D. SILVERMAN, J.D. FIGUEROA, F.X. REAL, M. GARCIA-CLOSAS, N. MALATS, S. CHANOCK, M. YEAGER, A. ARDON, R. GARCIA-CLOSAS, C. SERRA, A. CARRATO, G. CASTAÑO-VINYALS, C. SAMANIC, N. ROTHMAN et M. KOGEVINAS (2010). Polymorphisms in GSTT1, GSTZ1, and CYP2E1, disinfection by-products, and risk of bladder cancer in Spain. Environ. Health Perspect., 118 (11), 1545-1550.
- CHAMBON P., M. TAVEAU, M. MORIN, R. CHAMBON, J. VIAL (1983). Survey of trihalomethane levels in Rhône-Alps water supplies. Estimates on the formation of chloroform in wastewater treatment plants and swimming pools. Water Res., 17 (1), 65-69.
- CHU I., V. SECOURS, I. MARINO et D.C. VILLENEUVE (1980).The acute toxicity of four trihalomethanes in male and female rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharm., 52, 351-353.
- CRAGLE D.L., C.M. SHY, R.J. STRUBA et E.J. SIFF (1985). A case-control study of colon cancer and water chlorination in North Carolina. Dans : Water Chlorination: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects. JOLLEY R.L., R.J. BULL, W.P. DAVIS, S. KATZ, M.H. ROBERTS, Jr., et V.A. JACOBS (Éditeurs), Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, États-Unis, Vol. 5, pp. 153-159.
- DALMAU G., M.E. MARTINEZ-ESCALA, V. GAZQUEZ, J.A. PUJOL-MONTCUSI, L. CANADELL, M.E. QUER, R.M. PUJOL, J. VILAPLANA, P. GAIG et A. GIMENEZ-ARNAU (2012). Swimming pool contact dermatitis caused by 1-bromo-3-chloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoïn. Contact Dermatitis, 66 (6), 335-339.
- DANIEL F.B., K.M. SCHENCK, J.K. MATTOX, E.L. LIN, D.L. HAAS et M.A. PEREIRA (1986). Genotoxic properties of haloacetonitriles: Drinking water by-products of chlorine disinfection. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 6 (3), 447-453.
- DE ANGELO A.B., M.H. GEORGE, S.R. KILBURN, T.M. MOORE et D.C. WOLF (1998). Carcinogenicity of potassium bromate administered in drinking water to male B6C3F1 mice and F344/N rats. Toxicol. Pathol., 26, 587-594.
- DE LAAT J., F. BERNE, R. BRUNET et C. HUE (2009). By-products of chlorination formed during the disinfection of swimming pool waters. Bibliographical study. Eur. J. Water, 40, 109-128.
- DERREUMAUX A. et M. LAMBERT (1973). Procédé et installation de traitement des eaux d'une piscine. Brevet canadien, No. CA 935099.
- DORÉ M., N. MERLET et J. DE LAAT (1979). Réactivité de quelques précurseurs de la réaction haloforme. Influence de l'ammoniaque. J. Fr. Hydrol., 10 (2), 131-140.
- DORÉ M. et J. GOICHON (1980). Étude d'une méthode d'évaluation globale des précurseurs de la réaction haloforme. Water Res., 14, 657-663.
- DORÉ M. (1989). Chimie des oxydants et traitement des eaux. Éditions Lavoisier, Paris, France, 528 p.
- ERDINGER L., K.P. KÜHN, F. KIRSH, R. FELDHUES, T. FRÖBEL, B. NOHYNEK et T. GABRIO (2004). Pathways of trihalomethane uptake in swimming pools. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health, 207, 571-575.
- FITZGERALD D.J. et N.I. ROBINSON (2007). Development of a tolerable daily intake for N-nitrosodimethylamine using a modified benchmark dose methodology. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A, 70 (19), 1670-1678.
- FENG Y., D.W. SMITH et J.R. BOLTON (2007). Photolysis of aqueous free chlorine species HOCl and CLO- with 254 nm ultraviolet lamp. J. Environ. Eng. Sci., 6, 277-284.
- FLAHAUT J. (1977). Applications modernes du brome et de ses dérivés. Rev. Hist. Pharm., 232, 34-62.
- GOULD D.J. (1983). Dermatosis associated with brominated swimming pools. Br. Med. J., 287, 913.
- GREAT LAKES CHEMICAL CORPORATION (2005). Aqueous suspensions of compounds with low solubility in water. Brevet européen, No. EP 1202624.
- HAAG W.R. (1981). On the disappearance of chlorine in sea-water. Water Res., 15 (7), 937-940.
- HARRINGTON-BROCK K., D.D. COLLARD et T. CHEN (2003). Bromate induces loss of heterozygosity in the thymidine kinase gene of L5178Y/Tk(+/-)-3.7.2C mouse lymphoma cells. Mutat. Res., 537 (1), 21-28.
- HILDESHEIM M.E., K.P. CANTOR, C.F. LYNCH, M. DOSEMECI, J. LUBIN, M. ALAVANJA et G. CRAUN (1998). Drinking water source and chlorination by-products. II. Risk of colon and rectal cancers. Epidemiology, 9 (1), 29-35.
- HOFFMAN R. et R.C. ANDREWS (2001). Ammoniacal bromamines: A review of their influence on bromate formation during ozonation. Water Res., 35, 599-604.
- HSU C.H., W.L. JENG, R.M. CHANG, L.C. CHIEN et B.C. HAN (2001). Estimation of potential lifetime cancer risks for trihalomethanes from consuming chlorinated drinking water in Taiwan. Environ. Res., 85, 77-82.
- HUANG X., N. GAO et Y. DENG (2008). Bromate ion formation in dark chlorination and ultraviolet/chlorination for bromide-containing water. J. Environ. Sci., 20, 246-51.
- JENNER H.A., C.J.L. TAYLOR, M. VAN DONCK et M. KHALANSKIC (1997). Chlorination by-products in chlorinated cooling water of some European coastal power stations. Mar. Environ. Res., 43 (4), 279-293.
- JOHANNESSON J.K. (1960). The bromination of swimming pools. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health, 50, 1731-1736.
- JOHNSON J.D. et R. OVERBY (1971). Bromine and bromamine disinfection chemistry. J. San. Eng. Div. Proc. ASCE, 97, 617-628.
- JUDD S.J. et J.A. JEFFREY (1995). Trihalomethane formation during swimming pool water disinfection using hypobromous and hypochlorous acids. Water Res., 29 (4), 1203-1206.
- KANAN A. et T. KARANFIL (2011). Formation of disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pool water: the contribution from filling water natural organic matter and swimmer body fluids. Water Res., 45 (2), 926-932.
- KARCHER W. et J. DEVILLERS (1990). Practical applications of Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR) in environmental chemistry and toxicology. Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, Dordrecht, Pays-Bas, 476 p.
- KRASNER S.W., H.S. WEINBERG, S.D. RICHARDSON, S.J. PASTOR, R. CHINN, M.J. SCLIMENTI, G.D. ONSTAD et A.D. THRUSTON, Jr. (2006). Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts. Environ. Sci. Technol., 40 (23), 7175-7185.
- KARGALIOGLU Y., B.J. McMILLAN, R.A. MINEAR et M.J. PLEWA (2002). Analysis of the cytotoxicity and mutagenicity of drinking water disinfection by-products in Salmonella typhimurium. Teratog. Carcinog. Mutagen., 22 (2), 113-128.
- KETTWICH S.C., L.O. PAULSON, P.L. RASTON et D.T. ANDERSON (2008). Photodissociation of molecular bromine in solid H2 and D2: Spectroscopy of the atomic bromine spin-orbit transition. J. Phys. Chem. A, 112 (44), 11153-11158.
- KOGEVINAS M., C.M. VILLANUEVA, L. FONT-RIBERA, D. LIVIAC, M. BUSTAMANTE, F. ESPINOZA, M.J. NIEUWENHUIJSEN, A. ESPINOSA, P. FERNANDEZ, D.M. DEMARINI, J.O. GRIMALT, T. GRUMMT et R. MARCOS (2010). Genotoxic effects in swimmers exposed to disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pools. Environ. Health. Perspect., 118 (11), 1531-1537.
- KOSKI T.A., L.S. STUART et L.F. ORTENZIO (1966). Comparison of chlorine, bromine, and iodine as disinfectants for swimming pool water. J. Appl. Microbiol., 14 (2), 276-279.
- KRISTIANSEN N.K., M. FROESHAUG et K.T. AUNE (1994). Identification of halogenated compounds in chlorinated seawater and drinking water produced offshore using n-pentane extraction and open-loop stripping technique. Environ. Sci. Technol., 28 (9), 1669-1673.
- KUROKAWA Y., A. MAEKAWA, M. TAKAHASHI et Y. HAYASH (1990). Toxicity and carcinogenicity of potassium bromate - a new renal carcinogen. Environ. Health Perspect., 87, 309-335.
- LAGADEC G. (2005). État des lieux des pratiques d’utilisation de l’eau à des fins ludiques et de remise en forme. Mémoire de l'École Nationale de la Santé Publique, Rennes, France, 142 p.
- LAGIERE J., C. DEYTIEUX-BELLEAU, S. BIASUTTI et K. DUBOURG (2009). Étude comparative du brome et du chlore dans la désinfection des eaux thermales de Dax. Presse Therm. Clim., 146, 31-39.
- LAKIND J.S., S.D. RICHARDSON et B.C. BLOUNT (2010). The good, the bad, and the volatile: can we have both healthy pools and healthy people? Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 3205-3210.
- LEE J., K.T. HA et K.D. ZOH (2009). Characteristics of trihalomethane (THM) production and associated heal.th risk assessment in swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods. Sci. Total. Environ., 407, 1990-1997.
- LEHMAN G. et P.K. KNOFFEL (1938). Trichlorethanol, tribromoethanol, chloral hydrate and bromal hydrate. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 63, 453-465.
- LEI H., B.J. MARIÑAS et R.A., MINEAR (2004). Bromamine decomposition kinetics in aqueous solutions. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 2111-2119.
- LI J. et E.R. BLATCHLEY (2007). Volatile disinfection byproduct formation resulting from chlorination of organic-nitrogen precursors in swimming pools. Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 6732-6739.
- LINDER R.E., G.R. KLINEFELTER, L.F. STRADER, J.D. SUAREZ et C.J. DYER (1994). Acute spermatogenic effects of bromoacetic acids. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 22 (3), 422-430.
- LOUGHNEY E. et J. HARRISON (1998). Irritant contact dermatitis due to l-bromo-3-chloro-5,5-dimethythydantoin in a hydrotherapy pool. Occup. Med., 48, 461-463.
- LOURENCETTI C., J.O. GRIMALT, E. MARCO, P. FERNANDEZ, L. FONT-RIBERA, C.M. VILLANUEVA et M. KOGEVINAS (2012). Trihalomethanes in chlorine and bromine disinfected swimming pools: Air-water distributions and human exposure. Environ. Int., 45, 59-67.
- LUO X.H. et T.E. CLEVENGER (2005). Role of NOM in the formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in surface waters. DENG B.L. Conference: 229th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society, San Diego, CA, États-Unis.
- MASSIN N., A. BOHADANA, P. WILD, M. HÉRY, J.P. TOAMAIN et G. HUBERT (1998). Respiratory symptoms and bronchial responsiveness in lifeguards exposed to nitrogen trichloride in indoor swimming pools. Occup. Environ. Med., 55, 258-263.
- MELNICK R.L., A. NYSKA, P.M. FOSTER, J.H. ROYCROFT et G.E. KISSLING (2007). Toxicity and carcinogenicity of the water disinfection by-product, dibromoacetic acid, in rats and mice. Toxicology, 230, 126-136.
- MINISTÈRE DE LA TRANSITION ÉCOLOGIQUE ET SOLIDAIRE (2017). Produits biocides. https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/produits-biocides (consultation le 25 novembre 2016).
- MORGAN M.J. (1983). Dermatosis associated with brominated swimming pools. Br. Med. J., 287, 913.
- MORRIS J.C. (1966). The acid ionization constant of HOCl from 5 to 35°C. J. Phys. Chem., 70, 3798-3805.
- MORRIS J.C., R.A. ISAAC, R.L. JOLLEY, W.A. BRUNGS, J.A. COTRUVO, R.B. CUMMING, J.S. MATTICE et V.A. JACOBS (1981). A critical review of kinetic and thermodynamic constants for the aqueous chlorine-amonia system. Dans : Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects. JOLLEY R.L., W.A. BRUNGS, J.A. COTRUVO, R.B. CUMMING, J.S. MATTICE et V.A. JACOBS (Éditeurs), Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI, États-Unis, Vol. 4 (1), pp. 49-62.
- NORIN H. et L. RENBERG (1980). Determination of trihalomethanes (THM) in water using high efficiency solvent extraction. Water Res., 14 (10), 1397-1402.
- OH S.H., H.D. YOO, H.N. LEE et E.S. KIM (2007). Comparative characterization on bacterial disinfection using trichloroisocyanuric acid, bromochlorodimethylhydantoin and calcium hypochlorite. Korean J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 35, 334-338.
- ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTÉ (OMS) (1970). Dix-septième rapport du Comité OMS d'experts. Comité OMS d'experts de la pharmacodépendance, OMS, série de rapports techniques, No. 437, Genève, Suisse, 32 p.
- ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTÉ (OMS) (1993). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Volume 1: Recommendations. 2e édition, Genève, Suisse, 11 p.
- ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTÉ (OMS) (2000). Guidelines for safe recreational water environments. Volume 2. Swimming pools, spas and similar recreational-water environments. Final draft, Genève, Suisse, 15 p.
- ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTÉ (OMS) (2006a). Guidelines for drinking-water quality, third edition, incorporating first and second addenda. Volume 1. Recommandations. Genève, Suisse, 516 p.
- ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTÉ (OMS) (2006b). Guidelines for safe recreational waters. Volume 2. Swimming pools and similar recreational water environments. Genève, Suisse, 118 p.
- ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA SANTÉ (OMS) (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 4e édition, Genève, Suisse, 564 p.
- PARINET J., S. TABARIES, B. COULOMB, L. VASSALO et J.L. BOUDENNE (2011). Exposure levels to brominated compounds in seawater swimming pools treated with chlorine. Water Res., 46 (3), 828-836.
- PEGRAM R.A., M.E. ANDERSEN, S.H. WARREN, T.M. ROSS et L.D. CLAXTON (1997). Glutathione S-transferase-mediated mutagenicity of trihalomethanes in Salmonella typhimurium: contrasting results with bromodichloromethane and chloroform. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 144, 183-188.
- PENNY P.T. (1991). Hydrotherapy pools of the future - the avoidance of health problems. J. Hosp. Infect., 18 (Suppl. A), 535-542.
- PETERS R.J.B., E.W.B DELEER et L. DEGALAN (1990). Chlorination of cyanoethanoic acid in aqueous medium. Environ. Sci. Technol., 24, 81-86.
- PLEWA M.J., Y. KARGALIOGLU, D. VANKERK, R.A. MINEAR et E.D. WAGNER (2002). Mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity analysis of drinking water disinfection by-products. Environ. Mol. Mutagen., 40, 134-142.
- PLEWA M.J., E.D. WAGNER et W.A. MITCH (2011). Comparative mammalian cell cytotoxicity of water concentrates from disinfected recreational pools. Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 4139-4165.
- PRICE D. et D.G. AHEARN (1988). Incidence and persistence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in whirlpools. J. Clin. Microbiol., 26 (9), 1650-1654.
- RECKHOW D.A., P.C. SINGER et R.L. MALCOLM (1990). Chlorination of humic materials: By-product formation and chemical interpretations. Environ. Sci. Technol., 24 (11), 1655-1664.
- RICHARDSON S.D., M.J. PLEWA, E.D. WAGNER, R. SCHOENY et D.M. DEMARINI (2007). Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutat. Res., 636 (1-3), 178-242.
- RICHARDSON S.D., D.M. DE MARINI, M. KOGEVINAS, P. FERNANDEZ, E. MARCO, C. LOURENCETTI, C.BALLESTÉ, D. HEEDERIK, K. MELIEFSTE, A.B. MCKAGUE, R. MARCOS, L. FONT-RIBERA, J.O. GRIMAL.T et C.M. VILLANUEVA (2010). What’s in the pool? A comprehensive identification of disinfection by-products and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water. Environ. Health Perspect., 118 (11), 1523-1530.
- RODIER J., B. LEGUBE, N. MERLET et J. BRUNET (2009). L’analyse de l’eau. 9e édition, Dunod, Paris, France, 1600 p.
- ROOK J.J. (1974). Formation of haloforms during chlorination of natural waters. J. Water Treat. Exam., 23, 234-243.
- RYCROFT R.J.G. et P.T. PENNY (1983). Dermatosis associated with brominated swimming pools. Br. Med. J., 287, 462.
- SANTÉ CANADA (1994). Recommandations pour la qualité de l'eau potable au Canada. Document technique : Les trihalométhanes. Ottawa, Ont, Canada, 76 p.
- SANTÉ CANADA (2008). Recommandations pour la qualité de l'eau potable au Canada. Document technique : Les acides haloacétiques. Ottawa, Ont, Canada, 92 p.
- SAVARY B., R. LEVILLY, A. LAPLANCHE, D. WOLBERT, M. LEMASLE (2000). Formation des ions bromate dans une colonne à bulles : effet du peroxyde d’hydrogène lors de l’ozonation. Rev. Sci. Eau, 13 (2), 139-154.
- SCHREIBER I.M. et W.A. MITCH (2006). Nitrosamine formation pathway revisited: The importance of chloramine speciation and dissolved oxygen. Environ. Sci. Technol., 40 (19), 6007-6014.
- SHAW J.W. (1984). A retrospective comparison of the effectiveness of bromination and chlorination in controlling Pseudomonas aeruginosa in spas (whirlpools) in Alberta. Can. J. Public Health, 75, 61-68.
- SOULARD M., F. BLOC et A. HATTERER (1983). Comparaison du comportement chimique du chlore et du brome en épuration d'eau. Caractérisation, pouvoir oxydant et évolution des halogènes et des halogénamines. Rev. Fr. Sci. Eau, 2, l -23.
- SPEIT G., S. HAUPTER, P. SCHUTZ et P. KREIS (1999). Comparative evaluation of the genotoxic properties of potassium bromate and potassium superoxide in V79 Chinese hamster cells. Mutat. Res., 439, 213-221.
- TEO T.L.L., H.M. COLEMAN et S.J. KHAN (2015). Chemical contaminants in swimming pools: Occurrence, implications and control. Environ. Int., 76, 16-31.
- UENO H., T. MOTO, Y. SAYATO et K. NAKAMURO (1996). Disinfection by-products in the chlorination of organic nitrogen compounds: By-products from kynurenine. Chemosphere, 33, 1425-1433.
- UNATED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (US EPA) (1987). Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), N-nitrosodimethylamine. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC, États-Unis.
- UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (US EPA) (1998). National primary drinking water regulations. Disinfectants and disinfection by-products. Final Rule. Federal Register, Washington, DC, États-Unis, 88 p.
- UNATED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (US EPA) (1999). Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) on bromoform. National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC, États-Unis.
- UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (US EPA) (2005). Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001B, Washington, DC, États-Unis.
- UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (US EPA) (2010). Integrated Risk Information System. https://www.epa.gov/iris/ (consultation le 6 juillet 2015).
- VIDON D. (1970). Étude de l'activité bactéricide du brome sur la microflore de l'eau. Bull. Assoc. Pharm. Fr. Hydrol., 2, 21-36.
- WAGNER E.D., K.-M. HSU, A. LAGUNAS, W.A. MITCH et M.J. PLEWA (2012). Comparative genotoxicity of nitrosamine drinking water disinfection byproducts in Salmonella and mammalian cells. Mutat. Res. Genet. Toxicol. Environ. Mutagen., 741, 109-115.
- WAJON J.E. et J.C. MORRIS (1980). Bromamination chemistry: Rates of formation of NH2Br and some N-bromoamino acids. Dans : Water chlorination: Environmental impact and health effects. JOLLEY R.L., W.A. BRUNGS, et R.B. CUMING (Éditeurs), Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI, Éatst-Unis, Vol. 3, pp. 171-181.
- WALSE S.S. et W.A. MITCH (2008). Nitrosamine carcinogens also swim in chlorinated pools. Environ. Sci. Technol., 38 (42), 1032-1037.
- WEAVER W.A., J. LI, Y. WEN, J. JOHNSTON, M.R. BLATCHLEY et E.R. BLATCHLEY (2009). Volatile disinfection by-product analysis form chlorinated indoor swimming pools. Water Res., 43 (13), 3308-3318.
- WESTERHOFF P., P. CHAO et H. MASH (2004). Reactivity of natural organic matter with aqueous chlorine and bromine. Water Res., 38 (6), 1502-1513.
- WOJTOWICZ J.A. (1993). Chloramines and bromamines. Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, États-Unis, Vol. 5, pp. 932-968.
- WOLF D.C., L.M. CROSBY, M.H. GEORGE, S.R. KILBURN, T.M. MOORE, R.T. MILLER et A.B. DEANGELO (1998). Time and dose-dependent development of potassium bromate-induced tumors in male Fischer 344 rats. Toxicol. Pathol., 26, 724-729.
- WOLFE R.L., N.R. WARD et B.H. OLSON (1984). Inorganic chloramines as drinking water disinfectant: A Review. J. Am. Water Works Assoc., 76 (5), 74-88.
- WORLEY S.D. et J.A. WOJTOWICZ (2004). N-halamines. Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, États-Unis, pp. 98-122.