Résumés
Abstract
In response to increasing public concern over the accountability of transnational corporations (TNCs) for violations of human rights in the states in which they operate, governments, corporations and NGOs have promoted the development and implementation of voluntary self-regulatory regimes. However, TNC practices under these regimes call into question their adequacy and effectiveness in preventing complicity in egregious violations of human rights by corporations operating in conflict zones and repressive regimes. This article reviews and assesses the language, human rights content and compliance mechanisms of the voluntary policies and/or codes developed by a number of corporations, industry groups, intergovernmental organizations and multistakeholder initiatives, as well as associated corporate practices. The analysis shows that these voluntary regimes are flawed and inadequate, and therefore unable to ensure that TNCs are not complicit in human rights violations in their extra-territorial activities.
Résumé
En l’absence de responsabilité légale interne et internationale des entreprises transnationales en matière d’abus au plan des droits humains dans leurs activités outre-mer, les gouvernements, les entreprises et les ONG ont encouragé le développement et la mise en oeuvre de régimes d’autorégulation volontaire. Cependant, les détracteurs de ces mesures volontaires soutiennent que leur capacité de réglementer l’activité des entreprises et de solutionner les enjeux qui y sont liés en termes de droits humains est demeurée inadéquate. Plus précisément, cet essai remet en cause le caractère approprié ou non de ces régimes volontaires et leur efficacité à prévenir une certaine complicité des entreprises dans des situations de violation évidente des droits humains, reliées à leurs activités dans des zones de conflits et sous des régimes répressifs.
L’étude recense et évalue les codes et les politiques de quatre entreprises pétrolières multinationales, en plus des codes développés par l’industrie, les organismes intergouvernementaux et les initiatives des multidétenteurs d’intérêts. Elle examine aussi les pratiques d’entreprises associées à l’emploi de ces instruments, laissant entrevoir des problèmes importants au plan de leur nature volontaire, de leur langage, de leur contenu en termes de droits humains et des mécanismes d’acquiescement.
La configuration des codes et des politiques étudiés varie beaucoup, en passant d’une liste de principes généraux à des normes plus précises, et comporte parfois des exigences de mise en oeuvre et des mesures volontaires de suivi. Peu de ces instruments traitent suffisamment des enjeux en termes de droits humains. Seulement les Nations Unies avec le développement de leurs « Normes sur la responsabilité en matière de droits de l’homme des sociétés transnationales et autres entreprises » et l’organisme Global Contact ont abordé dans le détail l’enjeu de la complicité dans les abus au plan des droits humains, et toutes les normes, sauf celles des Nations Unies, sont formulées dans un langage permissif. De plus, aucun de ces codes et aucune de ces politiques, excluant les normes de l’ONU, ne présentent des mécanismes de respect efficaces.
En jetant un coup d’oeil sur les pratiques qui se développent chez les multinationales pour rendre compte de leur performance en matière de droits humains et sociaux, on constate que peu d’entreprises semblent avoir mis au point un cadre de comptabilité sociale transparente et fiable selon des procédures et une méthodologie qui offrent une garantie d’exactitude au plan de la cueillette de données liées aux droits humains. Souvent, il n’existe aucune divulgation du processus qui encadre la sélection et la consultation des détenteurs d’intérêts, de la façon dont la consultation de ces derniers fournit une information sur les frontières, l’envergure et le contenu d’un rapport en particulier, ou bien de la manière dont les décisions sont prises sur ce qui entre ou n’entre pas dans un rapport. Enfin, on observe une tendance marquée chez les entreprises transnationales à donner un bilan positif du progrès et de la performance des entreprises, nonobstant la divulgation sporadique de leurs forces et de leurs faiblesses.
En ce qui concerne la question de la reddition des comptes en matière de performance sociale, les Lignes directrices de la Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) pour le reporting développement durable de 2002 constituent dans l’ensemble un développement encourageant. Elles possèdent une légitimité dans la communauté des affaires et des ONG due à la large consultation dont elles ont fait l’objet au moment de leur élaboration et elles prévoient une sévérité croissante au plan des normes de divulgation qui présentent un potentiel réel pour l’avenir. Néanmoins, ces directives comportent aussi d’importantes faiblesses. En premier lieu, elles ne fournissent pas d’indicateurs spécifiques pour un site particulier d’exploitation ou pour un environnement d’activités d’une entreprise en particulier. Deuxièmement, l’absence d’élaboration d’indicateurs de droits humains engendre une situation insatisfaisante en permettant aux compagnies qui font rapport d’éviter de traiter des enjeux fondamentaux des droits humains liés à leurs activités et de prétendre que leur rapport est conforme aux directives. Enfin, une vérification indépendante n’est pas exigée pour qu’un rapport soit considéré en accord avec les directives.
Les pratiques courantes de vérification sont aussi l’objet de préoccupations sérieuses. Tout comme dans le cas de la divulgation sociale, il n’y a pas de normes universelles acceptées pour fins de vérification sociale, quoique des normes volontaires privées soient en élaboration. Sans normes obligatoires de vérification, les mandats de vérification sont donnés par les multinationales elles-mêmes. Alors, l’envergure de la vérification varie selon les compagnies et les préoccupations sérieuses à l’endroit des droits humains en relation avec les activités des entreprises ne sont pas abordées, sauf à la discrétion des multinationales elles-mêmes. Elles ne sont probablement pas soulevées par les vérificateurs dans tout rapport soumis au public.
Les rapports de vérification ont tendance à manquer de transparence au plan des procédures et de la méthodologie de cueillette et de vérification de l’information. L’impartialité des vérificateurs devient une autre préoccupation majeure puisque plusieurs entreprises privées de consultation et de vérification fournissent également des services-conseils aux multinationales dont elles assurent la vérification des livres. La fiabilité des rapports est en plus minée due au fait que la plupart des entreprises de vérification et de consultation ne possèdent pas l’expertise nécessaire en matière de cueillette et de divulgation d’information sur les droits humains.
Les normes des Nations Unies mises à part, les régimes actuels d’autorégulation, de par leurs dispositions inadéquates et permissives, leur respect volontaire, leur auto-évaluation et la vérification volontaire de cette évaluation, sont au mieux minimalistes et tout au plus inaptes à créer une reddition réelle de comptes en matière de droits humains de la part des entreprises transnationales qui oeuvrent dans des zones de conflits ou sous des régimes répressifs.
De tels codes et politiques pourraient être modifiés de façon importante en précisant des obligations bien définies en matière de droits humains, une divulgation contraignante et des normes obligatoires de vérification, de même que des exigences de contrôle indépendant. Cependant, il ne faut pas s’attendre à ce que de telles réformes soient adéquatement abordées par le secteur privé. Le volet volontaire de ces pratiques et de ces outils demeurera probablement problématique là où les obligations entrent en conflit avec des préoccupations de profitabilité et de concurrence à l’échelle mondiale. C’est pourquoi, en plus d’encourager l’amélioration de ces codes, il serait également important d’exercer une pression sur les gouvernements pour qu’ils adoptent à l’interne des mesures législatives dictant la conduite à suivre de la part des entreprises dans les zones de conflits ou sous les régimes répressifs, des mesures fournissant un support aux initiatives de l’ordre de celles des normes des Nations Unies qui paveront les fondements d’une réglementation à l’échelle internationale.
Resumen
En respuesta al creciente interés público sobre la responsabilidad de las corporaciones transnacionales respecto a la violación de los derechos humanos en los estados donde ellas operan, los gobiernos, las corporaciones y las ONGs han promovido el desarrollo y la implementación de regímenes voluntarios de auto-regulación. Sin embargo, las practicas de las corporaciones transnacionales bajo esos regímenes ponen en duda su pertinencia y eficacia para evitar la complicidad con violaciones de los derechos humanos por parte de las corporaciones que operan en las zonas en conflicto y bajo regímenes represivos. Este artículo revisa y afirma el discurso, el contenido de derechos humanos y los mecanismos de conformidad de las políticas voluntarias y/o de los códigos desarrollados por ciertas corporaciones, grupos de industrias, organizaciones intergubernamentales e iniciativas de multi-inversión, y analiza igualmente las practicas de las corporaciones asociadas. El análisis muestra que esos regímenes voluntarios son defectuosos e inadecuados, y por lo tanto, incapaces de asegurar que las corporaciones transnacionales no sean cómplices de las violaciones de los derechos humanos en sus actividades extraterritoriales.
Parties annexes
References
- AccountAbility (AA). 2003. Assurance Standard AA1000. Cited at: http://www.accountability.org.uk/resources/default.asp (visited August 18, 2003).
- Amnesty International. 2000. Sudan: The Human Price of Oil. Cited at: http://web.amnesty.org/ai.ngf/index/AFR540042000.htm (no longer posted).
- Avery, Christopher. 2000. Business and Human Rights in a Time of Change. London: Amnesty International.
- Bernard, Elaine. 1997. “Ensuring Monitoring is not Coopted.” New Solutions, Vol. 7 (cited in Avery 2000: 50–51).
- Boyd, Alan. 2003. “Multinationals and Accountability.” Asia Times, August 19. Cited at: http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/EH19Dj01.html (visited August 24, 2003).
- British Petroleum (BP). 2000. Finding Your Way Through the Maze: Ethical Conduct Policy: Guidelines on Business Conduct.
- British Petroleum (BP). 2002a. Business Policies. Cited at: http://www.bp.com/ files/33/3461PolicyQ4.qxd_339.pdf (visited August 21, 2003).
- British Petroleum (BP). 2003a. Environmental and Social Review 2002. Cited at: http://www.bp.com/files/17/BP_ENV_SOC_2002_1723.pdf (visited August 25, 2003).
- British Petroleum (BP). 2003b. Location Report: Angola. Cited at: http://www.bp.com/location_rep/angola/stakeholder/process.asp (visited August 25, 2003).
- Brownlie, Ian. 1983. System of the Law of Nations: State Responsibility, Part I. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Canadian Democracy and Corporate Accountability Commission. 2002. The New Balance Sheet: Corporate Profits and Responsibility in the21st Century. Cited at: http://www.corporate-accountability.ca (visited August 18, 2003).
- Cassel, Douglass. 1996. “Corporate Initiatives: A Second Human Rights Revolution?” Fordham International Law Journal, Vol. 19, 1963–1984.
- CLAIHR. 2000. “Complicity Backgrounder: Options Available to the Government of Canada in Responding to Canadian Corporate Complicity with Human Rights Abuses.” Cited at: http://www.claihr.org/publications_docs/project_documents/ business/1corpcomp.pdf (visited January 17, 2004).
- Clapham, Andrew. 2000. “The Question of Jurisdiction under International Criminal Law over Legal Persons: Lessons from the Rome Conference on an International Criminal Court.” Liability of Multinational Corporations under International Law. M. T. Kamminga and S. Zia Zarifi, eds. The Hague, London and Boston: Kluwer Law International, 139–195.
- Clapham, Andrew and Scott Jerbi. 2001. “Categories of Corporate Complicity in Human Rights Abuses.” Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, Vol. 24, 339–349.
- Crawford, James. 2002. The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Danailov, Silvia. 1998. “The Accountability of Non-State Actors for Human Rights Violations: The Special Case of Transnational Corporations.” Geneva. Cited at: http://www.humanrights.ch/buildungarbeit/seminare/pdf/ 000303_danailov_studie.pdf (visited January 8, 2004).
- Doe v. Unocal Corp. 248 F.3d 915 (9th Cir. 2002).
- Feeney, Patricia. 2002. “Making Companies Accountable: An NGO Report on Implementation of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises by National Contact Points.” Rights and Accountability in Development. Cited at: www.oecd.org/ dataoecd/16/37/2965489.pdf (visited January 21, 2004).
- Feeney, Patricia, et al. 2003. “Open Letter to National Contact Points for the OECD Guidelines Regarding the Followup to the UN Panel of Experts Final Report on the Illegal Exploitation of the Natural Resources and other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.” Monday, December 15.
- Forcese, Craig. 1997. Commerce with a Conscience? Human Rights and Corporate Codes of Conduct. Montreal: International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development.
- Forcese, Craig. 2002. “Globalizing Decency: Responsible Engagement in an Era of Economic Integration.” Yale Human Rights and Development Law Journal, Vol. 5, 1–55.
- Freeman, Alan. 2004. “Nigeria Oil Thefts Pose a Challenge for Shell.” The Globe and Mail. Wednesday, January 7, B12.
- Frey, Barbara. 1997. “The Legal and Ethical Responsibilities of Transnational Corporation in the Protection of International Human Rights.” Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, Vol. 6, 153–188.
- Gagnon, Georgette and John Ryle. 2001. Report of an Investigation into Oil Development, Conflict and Displacement in Western Upper Nile, Sudan. October 2001. Cited at: http://www.ideationconferences.com/sudanreport2001/ SudanReportfinal101101.pdf (visited January 15, 2004).
- Gagnon, Georgette, Audrey Macklin, and Penelope Simons. 2003. Deconstructing Engagement: Corporate Self-Regulation in Conflict Zones: Implications for Human Rights and Canadian Public Policy. Cited at: http://www.law.utoronto.ca/ documents/Mackin/DeconstructingEngagement.pdf (visited August 23, 2003).
- Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). 2002. 2002 Sustainability Reporting Guidelines. Cited at: http://www.globalreporting.org (visited August 18, 2003).
- Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). 2003. “UN Global Compact and GRI 2002 Guidelines.” Cited at: http://www.globalreporting.org.news/PR/030319.asp (visited August 22, 2003).
- Global Sullivan Principles Website. Cited at: http://globalsullivanprinciples.org (visited January 8, 2004).
- Government of Canada. 1998. Voluntary Codes: A Guide for Their Development and Use. Cited at: http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/SSG/ca00863e.html (visited August 18, 2003).
- Government of Canada. 2003. “Annual Report 2003: Canada’s National Contact Point for the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises.” Cited at: http://www.ncp-pcn.gc.ca/annual_2003-en.asp (visited January 15, 2004).
- Habbard, Anne-Christine. 2001. “The Integration of Human Rights in Corporate Principles.” OECD Guidelines Annual Report 2001, 99–102. Cited at: http://www.oecd.org/findDocument/ 0,2350,en_2649_34889_1_119687_1_1_37439,00.html (visited August 18, 2003).
- Harker, John. 2000. Human Security in Sudan: Report of CanadianAssessment Mission. Ottawa: Minister of Foreign Affairs.
- Human Rights Research and Education Centre Website. Cited at: http://www.cdp-hrc.uottawa.ca/globalization/busethics/codeint.html (visited August 17, 2003).
- Human Rights Watch. 1998. “Columbia: Human Rights Concerns Raised by the Security Arrangements of Transnational Oil Companies (April 1998).” Cited at: http://www.hrw.org/advocacy/corporations/colombia/Oilpat.htm (visited January 8, 2004).
- Human Rights Watch. 1999. The Price of Oil: Corporate Responsibility and Human Rights Violations in Nigeria’s Oil Producing Communities. Cited at: http://hrw.org/reports/1999/nigeria/Nigew991-01.htm (visited January 7, 2004).
- Human Rights Watch. 2003a. Human Rights Watch World Report 2003. New York, Washington, London, Brussels: Human Rights Watch, 201–207.
- Human Rights Watch. 2003b. Sudan, Oil and Human Rights. Cited at: http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/sudan1103/sudanprint.pdf (visited January 15, 2004).
- International Council on Human Rights Policy. 2002. Beyond Voluntarism: Human Rights and the Developing International Legal Obligations of Companies. Versoix, Switzerland.
- Janus. 2002. “Core? What a Scorcher!” Ethical Corporation Magazine, July.
- Johnston, Doug. 2002. Ernst & Young, London. Telephone Interview. June 5th.
- Joseph, Sarah. 1999. “Taming the Leviathans: Multinational Enterprises and Human Rights.” Netherlands International Law Review, Vol. 46, 171–203.
- Kamminga, Menno and Saman Zia-Zarifi. 2000. “Liability of Multinational Corporations under International Law: An Introduction.” Liability of Multinational Corporations under International Law. M. T. Kamminga and S. Zia Zarifi, eds. The Hague, London and Boston: Kluwer Law International, 1–13.
- Macalister, Terry. 2000. “Premier Admits Abuses in Burma.” The Guardian. Tuesday, May 16. Cited at http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/ 0,4273,4018615,00.html (visited January 8, 2004).
- Macfarlane, Magnus. 2002. Fellow at the Corporate Citizenship Unit of the Warwick Business School, University of Warwick. Telephone Interview. August 9th.
- Macek, Erin Elizabeth. 2002. “Scratching the Corporate Back: Why Corporations Have No Incentive to Define Human Rights.” Minnesota Journal of Global Trade, Vol. 11, 101–124.
- Macklin, Audrey. 2003. “Our Sisters from Stable Countries: War, Globalization, and Accountability.” Social Politics, Vol. 10, 256–283.
- Maitland, Alison. 2003. “Companies Ready to Work with UN Human Rights Code.” Financial Times, December 8. Cited at: http://financialtimes.com (visited December 16, 2003).
- Mayne, Ruth. 1999. “Regulating TNCs: The Role of Voluntary and Governmental Approaches.” Regulating International Business: Beyond Liberalization. S. Picciotto and R. Mayne, eds. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan Press and New York: St. Martins Press, 235–254.
- McCorquodale, Robert. 2002. “Human Rights and Global Business.” Commercial Law and Human Rights. S. Bottomley and D. Kinley, eds. Aldershot; Burlington: Ashgate Dartmouth, 89–114.
- Meeran, Richard. 2003. “Corporations, Human Rights and Transnational Litigation.” Lecture delivered at the Monash University Law Chambers, January 29th. Cited at: http://www.law.monash.edu.au/castancentre/events/2003/meeranpaper.html (visited January 21, 2004).
- Muchlinski, Peter. 2001. “Human Rights and Multinationals: Is There a Problem?” International Affairs, Vol. 77, 31–48.
- O’Rourke, Dara. 2000. “Monitoring the Monitors: A Critique of PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) Labour Monitoring.” Cited at: http://web.mit.edu/ dorourke/www/PDF/pwc.pdf.
- OECD. 2000a. “The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises.” OECD Declaration and Decisions on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises: Basic Texts. Directorate for Financial, Fiscal and Enterprise Affairs, Committee on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises, DAFFE/IME, Annex 1.
- OECD. 2000b. “The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises: Text Commentary and Clarifications.” Working Party on the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, Directorate for Financial, Fiscal and Enterprise Affairs, Committee on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises, DAFFE/IME/WPG(2000)15/FINAL.
- OECD. 2000c. “OECD Proceedings: Non-Member Economies and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises.” Paris: OECD Directorate for Financial, Fiscal and Enterprise Affairs. Cited at: http://www.oecd.org/pdf/M00020000/M00020571.pdf (visited December 3, 2002).
- OECD. 2001a. “The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Global Instruments for Corporate Responsibility: Background and Issues Paper.” Directorate for Financial, Fiscal and Enterprise Affairs. Cited at: http://www.oecd.org/pdf/ M00003000/M00003658.pdf (visited December 3, 2002).
- OECD. 2001b. “TUAC Survey of the Functioning of National Contact Points.” OECD Guidelines Annual Report 2001. Paris: OECD, 37–44.
- OECD Watch. 2003. “Review of National Contact Points: June 2002-June 2003.” Cited at: http://www.germanwatch.org/tw/kw-inl02.pdf (visited January 15, 2004).
- Osborn, Andrew. 2001. “British Oil Firms Accused of Burma Abuses.” The Guardian. Friday, October 12. Cited at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4275499–103681,00.html (visited January 8, 2004).
- Premier Oil. 2002. Social Performance Report 2001. Cited at: http://www.premier-oil.com/asp/pdf/PO-SP-Final.pdf (visited August 18, 2003).
- Premier Oil. 2003. Sustainability Performance Report 2002. Cited at: http://www.premieroil.com/asp/uploads/uploadedfiles/1/114/ premieroil_sust_rep_03.pdf (visited August 21, 2003).
- Presbyterian Church of Sudan v. Talisman Energy, Inc. 244 F. Supp. 2d 289 (S.D.N.Y. 2001).
- Ramasastry, Anita. 2002. “Corporate Complicity: From Nuremberg to Rangoon: An Examination of Forced Labor Cases and Their Impact on the Liability of Multinational Corporations.” Berkeley Journal of International Law, Vol. 20, 91–159.
- Ratner, Steven. 2001. “Corporations and Human Rights: A Theory of Legal Responsibility.” Yale Law Journal, Vol. 111, 443–545.
- Royal Dutch/Shell. 2002a. “Statement of General Business Principles.” Governance in Shell, 2nd ed. (CD Compilation).
- Royal Dutch/Shell. 2002b. “Management Primer.” Governance in Shell, 2nd ed. (CD Compilation).
- Royal Dutch/Shell. 2002c. People, Planet and Profits: The Shell Report 2001. Cited at: http://www.shell.com/html/investor-en/shellreport01/reports2001 (visited August 25, 2003).
- Royal Dutch/Shell. 2003. Meeting the Energy Challenge: The Shell Report 2002. Cited at: http://www.shell.com/home/Framework?siteId=shellreport2002-en&FC1=&FC2=/LeftHandNav?LeftNavState=4,2&FC4=&FC5=&FC3=/ shellreport2002-en/html/iwgen/about_shell/how_we_work.html (visited August 21, 2003).
- Royal Dutch/Shell. “Our Approach to Human Rights.” Cited at: http://www.shell.com/home/Framework?siteId=royal-en&FC1=&FC2=&FC4=&FC5=&FC3=/royal-en/html/iwgen/Issues/ human_rights/our_approach_to_human_rights.html (visited August 21, 2003).
- SAI Website. Cited at: http://www.cepaa.org/AboutSAI/AboutSAI.htm (visited January 20, 2004).
- Selby, Sarah. 2002. Consultant, Social Strategies, ERM, U.K. Telephone Interview, July 29th.
- Statement by the Governments of the United States of America and United Kingdom. 2000. Cited at: http://www.unglobalcompact.org/un/gc/unweb.nsf/ webprintview/volsupport.htm (no longer posted).
- Talisman Energy Inc. 2001. Corporate Social Responsibility Report 2000: Sudan Operations. Cited at: http://www.talisman-energy.com/pdfs/csr2000_report.pdf (visited August 18, 2003).
- Talisman Energy Inc. 2002. Corporate Social Responsibility 2001. Cited at: http://www.talisman-energy.com/pdfs/csr2001_report.pdf (visited August 18, 2003).
- Talisman Energy Inc. 2003. 2002 Corporate Social Responsibility Report. Cited at: http://www.talisman-energy.com/pdfs/TLM02CR.pdf (visited August 18, 2003).
- Talisman Energy Inc. “Policy on Business Conduct.” Cited at: http://www.talisman-energy.com/socialresponsibility/governance/business_conduct.html (visited August 18, 2003).
- Talisman Energy Inc. “Sudan Operating Principles.” Cited at: http://www.talisman-energy.com/socialresponsibility/governance/sudan.html (visited August 18, 2003).
- Talisman Energy Website. Cited at: http://www.talisman-energy.com/ operatingareas/sudan/sudan.html (visited August 20, 2003).
- The California Global Corporate Accountability Project. 2002. Beyond Good Deeds: Case Studies and a New Policy Agenda for Corporate Accountability. Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainable Development, The Natural Heritage Institute, and Human Rights Advocates.
- Toftoy, Ryan P. 1998. “Now Playing: Corporate Codes of Conduct in the Global Theater. Is Nike Just Doing It?” Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol. 15, 905–929.
- UN Global Compact. 2003. The Global Compact Report on Progress and Activities: July 2002-July 2003. Cited at: http://www.unglobalcompact.org (visited August 25, 2003).
- UN Global Compact Website. Cited at: http://www.unglobalcompact.org:80/ content/AboutTheGC/TheNinePrinciples (visited January 7, 2004).
- United Nations (UN). 1995. The Realization of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The Relationship between the Enjoyment of Human Rights, in particular, International Labour and Trade Union Rights, and the Working Methods and Activities of Transnational Corporations. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1995/11.
- United Nations (UN). 1999. “Secretary-General Proposes Global Compact on Human Rights, Labour, Environment, In Address to World Economic Forum in Davos.” Press Release UN Doc. SG/SM/6881, 1 February 1999. Cited at: http://www.un.org/News/ Press/docs/1999/19990201.sgsm6881.html (visited January 7, 2004).
- United Nations (UN). 2000. Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar (interim report). UN Doc. A/55/359.
- United Nations (UN). 2002a. Question of the Violation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in any Part of the World: Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2002/45.
- United Nations (UN). 2002b. Human Rights Principles and Responsibilities for Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises, Introduction. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/XX/Add.1, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/WG.2/WP.1/Add.1 (February 2002 for discussion in July/August 2002).
- United Nations (UN). 2002c. Draft Fundamental Human Rights Principles for Business Enterprises, Addendum 1. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/X/Add.1, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/WG2/WP.1/Add.1 (Draft for Discussion November 2001). Cited at: http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/links/omig.html (visited August 18, 2003).
- United Nations (UN). 2003a. Draft Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/12/Rev.2 (2003).
- United Nations (UN). 2003b. Commentary on the Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/38/Rev.2 (2003).
- United Nations (UN). 2003c. Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights. Sub-Commission Resolution 2003/16. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/L.11 at 52 (2003).
- United Nations (UN). 2003d. Joint Statement Submitted by the International Chamber of Commerce and the International Organization of Employers, non-governmental organizations in general consultative status. UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2003/NGO/44 (2003).
- United Nations Environment Programme Website. Cited at: http://www.uneptie.org/outreach/reporting/gri.htm#background (visited January 8, 2004).
- U.K. Parliament. 2003. Bill 129. Corporate Responsibility Bill. Cited at: http://www.foe.co.uk/campaigns/corporates/core/about/bill.html (visited January 21, 2004).
- U.S. Department of State. 2001. Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights. Fact Sheet. Released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. Cited at: http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/2931.htm (visited August 22, 2003).
- U.S. Department of State. 2003. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2002. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.
- Waddell, Steve. 2002. “The Global Reporting Initiative: Building a Corporate Reporting Strategy Globally.” Global Action Network Net. Cited at: http://www.gan-net.net/ pdfs/gri.pdf (visited January 8, 2004).
- Weissbrodt, David. 2000. “The Beginning of a Sessional Working Group on Transnational Corporations Within the U.N. Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities.” Liability of Multinational Corporations under International Law. M. T. Kamminga and S. Zia-Zarifi, eds. The Hague, London and Boston: Kluwer International Law, 119–138.
- Weissbrodt, David. 2003. E-mail communication. August 19th.
- Wiwa v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co. 226 F.2d 88 (2d Cir. 2000).