Résumés
Abstract
The Faroese grindadráp is a centuries-old, dramatic spectacle in which an entire pod of pilot whales is slaughtered en masse in a blood-soaked harbour, followed by the distribution of whale meat and blubber to participating villagers. For many Faroese, grindadráp is an embodiment of nationalism, achieved through the primordialization of tradition and the securitization of a beloved food source. For many outsiders, particularly since aggressive anti-whaling campaigns have besmirched the Faroese reputation in the international gaze, grindadráp amounts to a barbarous anachronism intolerable in modern society. This study takes a multivocal digital ethnographic approach to explore how politics, economics, and ethics of grindadráp are understood through social media debates, institutional rhetoric, and an interview. It considers how essentializing discourses of tradition and modernity are framed, their implications for collective action, and some potentialities that are revealed through a shift in perspective from barbaric ritual to dynamic economic practice.
Résumé
Le grindadráp aux îles Féroé est un spectacle dramatique datant de plusieurs siècles dans lequel un groupe entier de globicéphales est abattu en masse dans un port imbibé de sang, suivi de la distribution de viande et de graisse de baleine aux villageois qui y participent. Pour de nombreux Féroïens, le grindadráp est une incarnation du nationalisme, ainsi accompli grâce à la primordialisation de la tradition et à la sécurisation d’une source de nourriture très appréciée. Pour de nombreux étrangers, en particulier depuis que des campagnes agressives contre la chasse à la baleine ont entaché la réputation des îles Féroé aux yeux de la communauté internationale, le grindadráp équivaut à un anachronisme barbare, intolérable dans la société moderne. Cette étude adopte une approche ethnographique numérique multivocale pour explorer comment la politique, l’économie et l’éthique du grindadráp sont comprises à travers des débats sur les réseaux sociaux, une rhétorique institutionnelle et une entrevue. Elle examine la manière dont les discours essentialisants sur la tradition et la modernité sont formulés, leurs implications pour l’action collective et certaines potentialités révélées par un changement de perspective d’un rituel barbare à une pratique économique dynamique.
Parties annexes
References
- Abrahams, Roger D. 1968. “Introductory Remarks to a Rhetorical Theory of Folklore.” Journal of American Folklore 81(320): 143-158.
- Anderson, Pamela. 2016. “In the Name of Tradition?” Pamela Anderson Foundation, July 17. https://www.pamelaandersonfoundation.org/news/2016/7/17/the-grind-of-the-faroe-islands
- Bauman, Richard. 1975. “Verbal Art as Performance.” American Anthropologist 77(2): 290-311.
- Bauman, Richard and Charles L. Briggs. 2003. Voices of Modernity: Language Ideologies and the Politics of Inequality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Blank, Trevor J. (ed.). 2012. Folk Culture in the Digital Age: The Emergent Dynamics of Human Interaction. Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
- Blaut, James M. 1993. The Colonizer’s Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History. New York: Guilford Press.
- Bloch, Dorete and Martin Zachariassen. 1989. “The ‘Skinn’ Values of Pilot Whales in the Faroe Islands: an Evaluation and a Corrective Proposal.” Journal of Atlantic Studies 1: 38-56.
- Bogadóttir, Ragnheiður and Elisabeth Skarðhamar Olsen. 2017. “Making Degrowth Locally Meaningful: The Case of the Faroese Grindadráp.” Journal of Political Ecology 24(1): 504-518.
- Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Brewington, Seth D. 2016. “The Social Costs of Resilience: An Example from the Faroe Islands. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 27(1): 95-105.
- Briggs, Charles L. 1996. “The Politics of Discursive Authority in Research on the ‘Invention of Tradition.’” Cultural Anthropology 11(4): 435-469.
- Buccitelli, Anthony B. 2012. “Performance 2.0: Observations toward a Theory of the Digital Performance of Folklore.” In Trevor Blank (ed.), Folk Culture in the Digital Age: The Emergent Dynamics of Human Interaction: 60-84. Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
- Bulbeck, Chilla and Sandra Bowdler. 2008. “The Faroese Grindadráp or Pilot Whale Hunt: The Importance of Its ‘Traditional’ Status in Debates with Conservationists.” Australian Archaeology 67(1): 53-60.
- Clifford, James. 2004. “Traditional Futures.” In Mark Phillips and Gordon Schochet (eds.), Questions of Traditions: 152-168. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- Currid, Katie. 2011. “Whaling hunting in the faroe islands: a retrospective.” Blogpost. https://www.katiecurridphoto.com/blogg/category/DSMJ
- Dahl, Sverri. 1970. “The Norse Settlement of the Faroe Islands.” Medieval Archaeology 14(1): 60-73.
- Debes, Hans J. 1995. “The Formation of a Nation: The Faroe Islands.” In Sven Tägil (ed.), Ethnicity and Nation Building in the Nordic World: 63-84. Carbondale, IL: SIU Press.
- Dégh, Linda. 1994. American Folklore and the Mass Media. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Dickinson, Anthony B. and Chesley W. Sanger. 2005. Twentieth-Century Shore-Station Whaling in Newfoundland and Labrador. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
- Djurhuus, Høgni. 2022. “Bird flu spreading across the islands.” Kringvarp Føroya. July 6. https://kvf.fo/greinar/2022/07/06/bird-flu-spreading-across-islands
- Edwards, Kevin. 2005. “‘On the Windy Edge of Nothing.’ A Historical Human Ecology of the Faroe Islands.” Human Ecology 33(5): 585-596.
- Egevang, Carsten. 2017. “Gannet chick harvest at Mykines.” Seabird Harvest in the North Atlantic. https://www.atlanticseabirds.info/mykines
- Erikson, Patricia P. 1999. “A-Whaling We Will Go: Encounters of Knowledge and Memory at the Makah Cultural and Research Center.” Cultural Anthropology 14(4): 556-583.
- Fielding, Russell. 2007. “A Comparison of Pilot Whale Drives in Newfoundland and the Faroe Islands.” Scottish Geographical Journal 123(3): 160-172.
- Fielding, Russell. 2018. The Wake of the Whale: Hunter Societies in the Caribbean and North Atlantic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Fielding, Russell. 2021. “Contemporary Whaling in the Faroe Islands: Its History, Challenges, and Outlook.” Senri Ethnological Studies 104: 133-145.
- Føroya Landsstýri. 2013. “Executive Order on the Pilot Whale Drive.” Whales and Whaling in the Faroe Islands. https://www.whaling.fo/media/1053/grindakunnger%C3%B0in-2017-en.pdf
- Føroya Landsstýri. 2017. “Homepage.” Whales and Whaling in the Faroe Islands. https://www.whaling.fo/en/home/
- Føroya Landsstýri. 2019. “The Faroese Language.” The Official Gateway to the Faroe Islands. https://www.faroeislands.fo/arts-culture/language/
- Føroya Landsstýri. 2019. “Society: Tradition and Modernity Side by Side.” The Official Gateway to the Faroe Islands. https://www.faroeislands.fo/people-society/society/
- Gaffin, Dennis. 1996. In Place: Spatial and Social Order in a Faroe Islands Community. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
- Gibson-Graham, J.K. 2006. A Postcapitalist Politics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- Glassie, Henry. 1995. “Tradition.” Journal of American Folklore 108(430): 395-412.
- Goffman, Erving. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday.
- Føroya Landsstýri. 1983. “The Interaction Order: American Sociological Association, 1982 Presidential Address.” American Sociological Review 48(1): 1-17.
- Hall, Stuart, David Held, Don Hubert, and Kenneth Thompson (eds.). 1996. Modernity: An Introduction to Modern Sciences. London: Blackwell.
- Handler, Richard. 1986. “Authenticity.” Anthropology Today 2(1): 2-4.
- Handler, Richard and Jocelyn Linnekin. 1984. “Tradition, Genuine or Spurious.” Journal of American Folklore 97(385): 273-290.
- Hardin, Garrett. 1968. “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Science 162(3859): 1243-1248.
- Howard, Robert G. 2008. “Electronic Hybridity: The Persistent Processes of the Vernacular Web.” Journal of American Folklore 121(480): 192-218.
- Howard, Robert G. 2012. “How Counterculture Helped Put the ‘Vernacular’ in Vernacular Webs.” In Trevor Blank (ed.), Folk Culture in the Digital Age: The Emergent Dynamics of Human Interaction: 25-45. Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
- Í Eyðansstovu, Hans Meinhard. 2021. Interview with author. November 4.
- Joensen, Jóan Pauli. 2009. Pilot Whaling in the Faroe Islands: History, Ethnography, Symbol. Tórshavn: Faroe University Press.
- Kalland, Arne. 1993. “Management by Totemization: Whale Symbolism and the Anti-Whaling Campaign.” Arctic 46(2): 124-133.
- Kapchan, Deborah A. 1994. “Moroccan Female Performers Defining the Social Body.” Journal of American Folklore 107(423): 82-105.
- Kerins, Seán. 2010. A Thousand Years of Whaling: A Faroese Common Property Regime. Edmonton: CCI Press.
- Knudsen, Karin Jóhanna L. 2010. “Language Use and Linguistic Nationalism in the Faroe Islands.” International Journal of Multilingualism 7(2): 128-146.
- Lögmansskrivstovan. 2017. “Information Memorandum: Community-Based Whaling in the Faroe Islands.” Prime Minister’s Office, May. https://lms.cdn.fo/media/10263/information-memorandum-community-based-whaling-in-the-faroe-islands.pdf?s=gErGI7R2Hrcxe_ DzvFTld8hU_CA
- Muirhead, Eliza. 2015. “The sea turned red: Islanders’ brutal slaughter of 250 stranded whales.” Daily Mail, July 24. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/the-sea-turned-red-islanders-brutal-slaughter-of-250-stranded-whales/NHCJSD2IDOQ5G6X4S33LLYV7AQ/
- Munro, Scott. 2020. “Robert Plant cancels Faroe Islands festival set due to country’s whaling operation.” Classic Rock, March 3. https://www.loudersound.com/news/robert-plant-cancels-faroe-islands-festival-set-due-to-countrys-annual-whaling-operation
- Narayan, Uma. 1997. Dislocating Cultures. London: Routledge.
- Nauerby, Tom. 1996. No Nation Is an Island. Language, Culture, and National Identity in the Faroe Islands. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
- Niclasen, Gunnhild Dahl. 2015. “The Survival of an Island: A Study on Landownership and Depopulation on the Islands Mykines and Skúgvoy.” Unpublished MA thesis. Lund: Lund University.
- Olsen, Jústines. 1999. “Killing Methods and Equipment in the Faroese Pilot Whale Hunt.” North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission, Report to the Working Group Meeting in Hunting Methods. NAMMCO 99.
- Pike, Daniel G., Thorvaldur Gunnlaugsson, Bjarni Mikkelsen, Sverrir Daniel Halldórsson, Gísli Víkingsson, Mario Acquarone, and Genevieve Desportes. 2019. “Estimates of the Abundance of Cetaceans in the Central North Atlantic from the T-NASS Icelandic and Faroese Ship Surveys Conducted in 2007.” NAMMCO Scientific Publications 11: 1-22.
- Robé, Christopher. “The Convergence of Eco-Activism, Neoliberalism, and Reality TV in Whale Wars.” Journal of Film and Video 67(3-4): 94-111.
- Sanderson, Kate. 1990. “Grindadráp: The Discourse of Drama.” North Atlantic Studies 2(1-2): 196-204.
- Sanderson, Kate. 1992. “Grindadráp: A Textual History of Whaling in the Faroes to 1900.” Unpublished MPhil thesis. Sydney: University of Sydney.
- Sanderson, Kate. 1994. “Grind – Ambiguity and Pressure to Conform.” In Milton M.R. Freeman and Urs P. Kreuter (eds.), Elephants and Whales: Resources for Whom: 187-201. Basel: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
- Schechter, Harold. 1988. The Bosom Serpent: Folklore and Popular Art. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.
- Simonsen, Kim. 2016. “The Romantic Canon and the Making of a Cultural Saint in the Faroe Islands.” Romantik: Journal for the Study of Romanticisms 4(1): 73-92.
- Singleton, Benedict E. 2016. “Love-iathan, the Meat-Whale and Hidden People: Ordering Faroese Pilot Whaling.” Journal of Political Ecology 23(1): 26-48.
- Svanberg, Ingvar. 2021. “The Importance of Animal and Marine Fat in the Faroese Cuisine: The Past, Present, and Future of Local Food Knowledge in an Island Society.” Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 5: 1-18.
- Tavory, Iddo and Gary A. Fine. 2020. “Disruption and the Theory of the Interaction Order.” Theory and Society 49(3): 365-385.
- Tolbert, Jeffrey A. and Eric DM Johnson. 2019. “Digital Folkloristics: Text, Ethnography, and Interdisciplinarity.” Western Folklore 78(4): 327-356.
- Van Ginkel, Rob. 2007. “Contentious Traditions, Eco-Political Discourse and Identity Politics.” MAST 6(1): 9-43.
- Vialles, Noilie. 1994. Animal to Edible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Watts, Michael J. 1992. “Capitalisms, Crises, and Culture 1: Notes Toward a Totality of Fragments.” In Allan Pred and Michael Watts (eds.), Reworking Modernity: Capitalisms and Symbolic Discontent: 1-20. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
- Weber, Max. 1978. Economy and Society. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Weihe, Pál, and Høgni Debes Joensen. 2012. “Dietary Recommendations Regarding Pilot Whale Meat and Blubber in the Faroe Islands.” International Journal of Circumpolar Health 71(1): 18594.
- Wylie, Jonathan. 1987. The Faroe Islands: Interpretations of History. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
- Wylie, Jonathan and David Margolin. 1981. The Ring of Dancers. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.