Résumés
Abstract
Through employing critical race theory, seen-invisibility, and circuits of dispossession as theoretical frames, this article complicates discourses around equity and Black student achievement by examining the underexplored experiences of high-achieving Black Canadian students in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). Drawing on focus group data with four adolescent participants, the study finds that they experienced violent forms of racialization in their educational environments through a lack of physical, social, and intellectual space to exist as both Black and high-achieving. This rendered them persistently present due to their race, yet invisible in the perceptions of their intellect.
Central to this article is an articulation, unpacking, and thus granular analysis of the particular ways that racialization can operate within education systems to still marginalize Black students and erect complex barriers––even when they demonstrate strong academic performance. These emerging insights inform a need for a broader and more holistic understanding of Black Canadian student experiences and a rethinking of intervention and resistance strategies.
Keywords:
- Black students,
- racialization,
- high achievement,
- enrichment,
- belonging
Résumé
En utilisant la théorie critique de la race, l’invisibilité vue, et des circuits de dépossession comme cadres théoriques, cet article complique les discours sur l’équité et la réussite des étudiants noirs en examinant les expériences des étudiants Canadiens noirs qui sont très performants dans la région du Grand Toronto (RGT). S’appuyant sur des données de groupes de discussion avec quatre participants adolescents, l’étude révèle qu’ils ont subi des formes violentes de racialisation dans leurs environnements éducatifs en raison d’un manque d’espace physique, social, et intellectuel pour exister à la fois en tant que noirs et très performants. Cela les a rendus constamment présents en raison de leur race, mais invisibles dans les perceptions de leur intellect.
Au coeur de cet article se trouve une articulation, une explication, et donc une analyse granulaire des façons particulières dont la racialisation peut opérer au sein des systèmes éducatifs pour marginaliser encore les étudiants noirs et ériger des barrières complexes, même l’lorsqu’ils démontrent de bons résultats scolaires. Ces idées émergentes informent le besoin d’une compréhension plus large et plus holistique des expériences des étudiants noirs canadien et de repenser les stratégies d’intervention et de résistance.
Mots-clés :
- étudiants noirs,
- racialisation,
- haute réussite scolaire,
- enrichissement académique,
- l’appartenance
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Akom, A. A. (2008). Black metropolis and mental life: Beyond the “burden of ‘acting white’” toward a third wave of critical racial studies. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 39(3), 247–265.
- Aladejebi, F. (2021). Schooling the system: A history of Black women teachers (vol. 8). McGill-Queen’s Press.
- Allison, D. J. (2015). School choice in Canada: Diversity along the wild–domesticated continuum. Journal of School Choice, 9(2), 282–309.
- Alphonso, C. (2021, August 31). TDSB data show rapid reading improvement in Black elementary students during COVID-19 pandemic. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-tdsb-data-show-rapid-reading-improvement-in-black-elementary-students/
- Alphonso, C. (2022, May 25). TDSB votes to change admission policy for specialty schools. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-tdsb-admission-policy-specialty-schools/
- Alphonso, C. (2023, April 21). TDSB won’t redo elementary alternative schools lottery despite accidentally omitting students. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-tdsb-wont-redo-elementary-alternative-schools-lottery-despite/
- Alphonso, C., & Grant, T. (2013, November 16). A tale of two schools: The correlation between income and education in Toronto. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/time-to-lead/a-tale-of-two-schools-the-correlation-between-income-and-education/article15463950/
- Arat-Koc, S. (1997). From “mothers of the nation” to migrant workers. In A. B. Bakan & D. K. Stasiulis (Eds.), Not one of the family: Foreign domestic workers in Canada (pp. 53–79). University of Toronto Press.
- Bailey, R. A., Gray, E., Brady, J., & Tecle, S. (2016). We rise together: Perspectives of Black male students in secondary school—Understanding the successes and challenges – Student focus group results. Peel District School Board.
- Balingit, M., & Rabinowitz, K. (2021, July 27). Home schooling exploded among Black, Asian, and Latino students. But it wasn’t just the pandemic. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2021/07/27/pandemic-homeschool-black-asian-hispanic-families/
- Barber, M. (1991). Immigrant domestic servants in Canada. Canadian Historical Association.
- Béhague, G. (2006). Diversity and the arts: Issues and strategies. Latin American Music Review, 27(1), 19–27.
- Borland, J. F. (2003). The death of giftedness: Gifted education without gifted children. In J. F. Borland (Ed.), Rethinking gifted education (pp. 105–126). Teachers College Press.
- Borland, J. F. (2005). Gifted education without gifted children: The case for no conception of giftedness. In R. J. Sternberg & J. E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp. 1–18). Cambridge University Press.
- Borland, J. F. (2013). Problematizing gifted education. In C. M. Callahan & H. Hertberg-Davis (Eds.), Fundamentals of gifted education: Considering multiple perspectives (pp. 69–80). Taylor & Francis.
- Bosetti, L., & Gereluk, D. (2018). Understanding school choice in Canada. University of Toronto Press.
- Bosetti, L., Van Pelt, D., & Allison, D. (2017). The changing landscape of school choice in Canada: From pluralism to parental preference? Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25, 38.
- Brathwaite, K. S., & James, C. E. (Eds.). (1996). Educating African Canadians. James Lorimer & Company.
- Brown, L. (2013, February 6). ‘Best’ high schools inspire desperate measures—by parents. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/queenspark/2013/02/06/best_high_schools_inspire_desperate_measures_by_parents.html
- Brown, R. S., & Parekh, G. (2010). Special education: Structural overview and student demographics. Toronto District School Board.
- Calliste, A. (1989). Canada’s immigration policy and domestics from the Caribbean: The second domestic scheme. Race, Class, Gender: Bonds and Barriers, 5, 133–165.
- Calliste, A. (1993). Women of ‘exceptional merit’: Immigration of Caribbean nurses to Canada. Canadian Journal of Women & the Law, 6, 85.
- Calliste, A. (1994). Race, gender, and Canadian immigration policy: Blacks from the Caribbean, 1900-1932. Journal of Canadian Studies, 28(4), 131–148.
- Canadian Museum of Immigration. (2018). Immigration Regulations, Order-in-Council PC 1962-86, 1962. Canadian Museum of Immigration. https://pier21.ca/research/immigration-history/immigration-regulations-order-in-council-pc-1962-86-1962
- Canning, A., & Tanglao, L. (2011, January 25). Ohio mom Kelley Williams-Bolar jailed for sending kids to better school district. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/ohio-mom-jailed-sending-kids-school-district/story?id=12763654
- Carrington, Ben. (2010). Race, sport, and politics: The sporting black diaspora. SAGE.
- Case, A. D., & Hunter, C. D. (2012). Counterspaces: A unit of analysis for understanding the role of settings in marginalized individuals’ adaptive responses to oppression. American Journal of Community Psychology, 50(1), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-012-9497-7
- CBC News. (2015, November 19). Unclear vision, resource shortage hinder outcomes for city’s Africentric school: Report.http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/africentric-school-report-1.3326447
- CBC News. (2021, February 10). Black students at the TDSB now have access to graduation coaches [Video]. https://www.cbc.ca/player/play/1858546243682
- Chadha, E., Herbert, S., & Richard, S. (2020). Review of the Peel District School Board. Ministry of Education. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/new/review-peel-district-school-board-report-en.pdf
- Chavannes, V. A. (2022, May). Factors influencing Black undergraduate students’ decision to attend university [Panel session]. Black Canadian Studies Association 2022 Conference, Virtual.
- Cheng, M. (1996). Anti-racist education project: A summary report on the extent of implementation and changes found in wards 11/12 schools, 1991-92 to 1994-95. Toronto Board of Education, Research and Assessment Department.
- Chinn, P. C., & Hughes, S. (1987). Representation of minority students in special education classes. Remedial and Special Education, 8(4), 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258700800406
- Clandfield, D., Curtis, B., Galabuzi, G.-E., Vincent, A. G. S., Livingston, D. W., & Smaller, H. (2014). Restacking the deck: Streaming by class, race, and gender in Ontario schools (Our Schools/Our Selves ed.). Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. https://www.policyalternatives.ca/our-schoolsour-selves-winter-2014
- Cokley, K. (2013). Deconstructing Ogbu’s acting White thesis: An Africentric critique. Texas Education Review, 1(1) 144–163. https://doi.org/10.15781/T2C824K5P
- Collins, K. H., Joseph, N. M., & Ford, D. Y. (2020). Missing in action: Gifted Black girls in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Gifted Child Today, 43(1), 55–63.
- Cooper, C. W. (2005). School choice and the standpoint of African American mothers: Considering the power of positionality. The Journal of Negro Education, 74(2), 174–189.
- Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. SAGE.
- Daniel, B.-J. M. (2021). Racial oases as spaces of positive racial identity socialization among African Canadian post-secondary students. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 1–19.
- Davies, S., Aurini, J. D., Forsey, M., Davies, S., & Walford, G. (2008). School choice as concerted cultivation: The case of Canada. In M. Forsey, S. Davies, & G. Walford (Eds.), The globalisation of school choice (pp. 55–72). Symposium Books.
- Dei, G. J. S. (1997). Race and the production of identity in the schooling experiences of African-Canadian youth. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 18(2), 241–257.
- Dei, G. J. S. (2016). Reflection on African Canadian education. In A. Ibrahim & A. A. Abdi (Eds.), Education of African Canadian children: Critical perspectives (pp. 207–226). McGill Queen’s University Press.
- Dei, G. J. S., & Karumanchery, L. L. (1999). School reforms in Ontario: The “marketization of education” and the resulting silence on equity. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 45(2).
- Dei, G. J. S., Mazzuca, J., & McIsaac, E. (1997). Reconstructing “dropout”: A critical ethnography of the dynamics of Black students’ disengagement from school. University of Toronto Press.
- Dougherty, J., Harrelson, J., Maloney, L., Murphy, D., Smith, R., Snow, M., & Zannoni, D. (2009). School choice in suburbia: Test scores, race, and housing markets. American Journal of Education, 115(4), 523–548.
- Erickson, H. H. (2017). How do parents choose schools, and what schools do they choose? A literature review of private school choice programs in the United States. Journal of School Choice, 11(4), 491–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/15582159.2017.1395618
- F.A.C.E.S. of Peel Collaborative. (2015). Fighting an uphill battle: Report on the consultations into the well-being of Black youth in Peel Region. United Way of Peel. https://exchange.youthrex.com/system/files_force/file-attached/reports/fighting-an-uphill-battle-sm.pdf?download=1
- Faircloth, B. S., & Hamm, J. V. (2005). Sense of belonging among high school students representing 4 ethnic groups. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(4), 293–309.
- Fanon, F. (2008). Black skin, white masks. Grove Press.
- Fernando, C. (2021, May 4). Some Black parents say remote learning during pandemic has kept students safe from racism in classroom. The Chicago Tribune. https://www.chicagotribune.com/coronavirus/ct-aud-nw-black-students-racism-remote-learning-20210504-yhycne3n7fdgpjdxtnavmn7yqq-story.html
- Fine, M., & Ruglis, J. (2009). Circuits and consequences of dispossession: The racialized realignment of the public sphere for US youth. Transforming Anthropology, 17(1), 20–33.
- Ford, D. Y. (1995). Desegregating gifted education: A need unmet. The Journal of Negro Education, 64(1), 52. https://doi.org/10.2307/2967284
- Ford, D. Y. (1998). The underrepresentation of minority students in gifted education: Problems and promises in recruitment and retention. The Journal of Special Education, 32(1), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699803200102
- Ford, D. Y. (2005). Intelligence testing and cultural diversity: Pitfalls and promises. Newsletter of National Research Center on Gifted and Talented. https://nrcgt.uconn.edu/newsletters/winter052/
- Ford, D. Y., Harris, J. J., III, Tyson, C. A., & Trotman, M. F. (2001). Beyond deficit thinking: Providing access for gifted African American students. Roeper Review, 24(2), 52–58.
- Ford, D. Y., & Helms, J. E. (2012). Overview and introduction: Testing and assessing African Americans: “Unbiased” tests are still unfair. The Journal of Negro Education, 81(3), 186–189.
- Ford, D. Y., Wright, B. L., Washington, A., & Henfield, M. S. (2016). Access and equity denied: Key theories for school psychologists to consider when assessing Black and Hispanic students for gifted education. School Psychology Forum, 10(3), 265–277.
- Fordham, S. (2008). Beyond capital high: On dual citizenship and the strange career of “acting White.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 39(3), 227–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1492.2008.00019.x
- Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students’ school success: Coping with the “burden of ‘acting white.’” The Urban Review, 18(3), 176–206.
- Frasier, M. M. (1987). The identification of gifted Black students: Developing new perspectives. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 10(3), 155–180.
- Frenec, L. (2013, February 28). Ontario’s first Africentric high school program to open this fall. The Toronto Star. http://www.thestar.com/yourtoronto/education/2013/02/28/ontarios_first_africentric_high_school_program_to_open_this_fall.html
- Gaztambide-Fernández, R., & Angod, L. (2019). Approximating Whiteness: Race, class, and empire in the making of modern elite/White subjects. Educational Theory, 69(6), 719–743.
- Gaztambide-Fernández, R., & Parekh, G. (2017). Market “choices” or structured pathways? How specialized arts education contributes to the reproduction of inequality. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25(41), 1–26.
- Gee, M. (2011a, March 28). Idea of “Africentric lens” at Oakwood Collegiate called short-sighted. The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/toronto/marcus-gee/idea-of-africentriclens-at-oakwood-collegiate-called-short-sighted/article1960699/
- Gee, M. (2011b, November 18). Africentric School against everything city stands for. The Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/toronto/marcus‐gee/africentric-school‐against-everything-city-stands-for/article2242279
- George, R. C., Romo, A., & Robson, K. L. (2021). Changes in the perception of school climate and self-identified race in two Toronto cohorts. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 29(118).
- Gonzalez-Sobrino, B., & Goss, D. R. (2019). Exploring the mechanisms of racialization beyond the black–white binary. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(4), 505–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2018.1444781
- Gopaul-McNicol, S.-A. (1993). Working with West Indian families. Guilford Press.
- Grissom, J. A., & Redding, C. (2016). Discretion and disproportionality: Explaining the underrepresentation of high-achieving students of color in gifted programs. AERA Open, 2(1), 2332858415622175. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858415622175
- Hammer, K. (2011, November 17). Africentric high school is approved, but it still needs a home. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/toronto/africentric-high-school-is-approved-but-it-still-needs-a-home/article4183785/
- Hammer, K. (2012, April 20). Local schools at risk as parents and students race to the hottest classes. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/local-schools-at-risk-as-parents-and-students-race-to-the-hottest-classes/article4101975/
- Harpalani, V. (2002). What does ‘acting White’ really mean? Racial identity formation and academic achievement among Black youth. Perspectives on Urban Education, 1(1). https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3153173
- Hasslund, I. (2020, February 17). On (a lack of) diversity in the arts. The Michigan Daily. https://www.michigandaily.com/section/statement/lack-diversity-arts
- Henry, F. (1968). The West Indian Domestic Scheme in Canada. Social and Economic Studies, 17(1), 83–91.
- Henry, N. (2022). Black enslavement in Canada. In The Canadian encyclopedia. Historica Canada. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/black-enslavement
- Horvat, E. M., & Lewis, K. S. (2003). Reassessing the “burden of ‘acting White’”: The importance of peer groups in managing academic success. Sociology of Education, 76(4), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519866
- Hou, F., & Picot, G. (2003). Visible minority neighbourhood enclaves and labour market. Analytical Studies Branch Research Paper Series (Catalogue no. 11F0019MIE). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2003204-eng.pdf?st=kmE7HiZT
- Hulchanski, J. D. (2010). The three cities within Toronto: Income polarization among Toronto’s neighbourhoods, 1970-2005. University of Toronto. http://neighbourhoodchange.ca/2011/05/12/research-paper-one/
- James, C. E. (2012). Students “at risk”: Stereotypes and the schooling of Black boys. Urban Education, 47(2), 464–494.
- James, C. E., Turner, T., George, R. C., & Tecle, S. (2017). Towards race equity in education: The schooling of Black students in the Greater Toronto Area. York University.
- Johnson, M. A. (2012). To ensure that only suitable persons are sent. In C. E. James & A. Davis (Eds.), Jamaica in the Canadian experience: A multiculturalizing presence (pp. 36–53). Fernwood.
- Johnson, M. A. (2022). “...not likely to do well or to be an asset to this country”: Canadian restrictions of Black Caribbean female domestic workers, 1910–1955. In M. A. Johnson & F. Aladejebi (Eds.), Unsettling the great white north: Black Canadian history (pp. 280–309). University of Toronto Press.
- Joldersma, C., & Perhamus, L. (2020). Stealing an education: On the precariousness of justice. Teachers College Record, 122(2), 1–24.
- Karera, A. (2021). Black feminist philosophy and the politics of refusal. In K. Q. Hall & Ásta (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of feminist philosophy (pp. 109–119).
- Kataure, V., & Walton-Roberts, M. (2018). The good, the bad, and the suburban: Tracing North American theoretical debates about ethnic enclaves, ethnic suburbs, and housing preference. In C. Teixeira & W. Li (Eds.), The housing and economic experiences of immigrants in US and Canadian cities (pp. 146–175). University of Toronto Press.
- Kempf, A. (2016). The history, logic, and push for standardized testing. In The pedagogy of standardized testing: The radical impacts of educational standardization in the US and Canada (pp. 29–50). Springer.
- Kempf, A. (2017, September 19). Should we get rid of standardized testing? - Arlo Kempf [Video]. TED. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtE0OsRWeYI
- Kennedy, B., & Teotonio, I. (2023, April 5). ‘I’m angry’: Parents in disbelief as TDSB error excludes racialized, disabled, LGBTQ students from alternative school lottery. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2023/04/05/racialized-disabled-and-lgbtq-students-excluded-from-lottery-for-spaces-in-coveted-tdsb-schools.html
- Klopfenstein, K. (2004). Advanced Placement: Do minorities have equal opportunity? Economics of Education Review, 23(2), 115–131.
- Kyburg, R. M., Hertberg-Davis, H., & Callahan, C. M. (2007). Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate programs: Optimal learning environments for talented minorities? Journal of Advanced Academics, 18(2), 172–215.
- Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is critical race theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education? International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1), 7–24.
- Leonardo, Z., & Broderick, A. (2011). Smartness as property: A critical exploration of intersections between whiteness and disability studies. Teachers College Record, 113(10), 2206–2232.
- Lewis, S. (1992). Stephen Lewis report on race relations in Ontario. Government of Ontario.
- MacDonald, M. (2010, September 25). Africentric school shines. Toronto Sun.
- MacDougall, G. (2010). Report of the independent expert on minority issues—Mission to Canada. United Nations, General Assembly.
- Madkins, T. C., & Morton, K. (2021). Disrupting anti-blackness with young learners in STEM: Strategies for elementary science and mathematics teacher education. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 21, 239–256.
- Mazama, A. (2016). African American homeschooling practices: Empirical evidence. Theory and Research in Education, 14(1), 26–44.
- Mazama, A., & Lundy, G. (2012). African American homeschooling as racial protectionism. Journal of Black Studies, 43(7), 723–748.
- Mazama, A., & Lundy, G. (2015). African American homeschooling and the quest for a quality education. Education and Urban Society, 47(2), 160–181.
- McCutcheon, G. (1997). Curriculum and the work of teachers. In D. J. Flinders & S. J. Thornton (Eds.), The curriculum studies reader (pp. 188–197). Routledge.
- Mickelson, R. A., Bottia, M., & Southworth, S. (2008). School choice and segregation by race, class, and achievement. National Education Policy Center. https://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/school-choice-and-segregation-race-class-and-achievement
- Miller, E. (2021, March 1). For some Black students, remote learning has offered a chance to thrive. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2021/03/01/963282430/for-some-black-students-remote-learning-has-offered-a-chance-to-thrive
- Naglieri, J. A., & Ford, D. Y. (2003). Addressing underrepresentation of gifted minority children using the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT). Gifted Child Quarterly, 47(2), 155–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698620304700206
- Oakes, J. (2005). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. Yale University Press.
- Ogbu, J. U. (2004). Collective identity and the burden of “acting White” in Black history, community, and education. The Urban Review, 36(1), 1–35.
- Onstad, K. (2018, September 19). Who gets to be gifted. The Walrus. https://thewalrus.ca/who-gets-to-be-gifted/
- Ontario Ministry of Education. (2017). Special education in Ontario, kindergarten to grade 12: Policy and resource guide. Government of
- Ontario. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/policy/os/2017/SpecEdFinal2018.pdf
- Ontario Ministry of Education. (2022). Individual education plans. Government of Ontario. http://www.ontario.ca/page/individual-education-plans
- Parekh, G., Brown, R. S., & Robson, K. L. (2018). The social construction of giftedness. Canadian Journal of Disability Studies, 7(2), 1–32.
- Parekh, G., Brown, R. S., & Zheng, S. (2021). Learning skills, system equity, and implicit bias within Ontario, Canada. Educational Policy, 35(3), 395–421.
- Parents of Black Children. (n.d.). About us. https://parentsofblackchildren.org/
- Pena-Shaff, J. B., Bessette-Symons, B., Tate, M., & Fingerhut, J. (2018). Racial and ethnic differences in high school students’ perceptions of school climate and disciplinary practices. Race Ethnicity and Education, 22(2), 269–284.
- Perna, L. W., May, H., Yee, A., Ransom, T., Rodriguez, A., & Fester, R. (2015). Unequal access to rigorous high school curricula: An exploration of the opportunity to benefit from the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IBDP). Educational Policy, 29(2), 402–425.
- Posey-Maddox, L., de Royston, M. M., Holman, A. R., Rall, R. M., & Johnson, R. A. (2021). No choice is the “right” choice: Black parents’ educational decision-making in their search for a “good” school. Harvard Educational Review, 91(1), 38–61.
- Puga, L. (2019). “Homeschooling is our protest:” Educational liberation for African American homeschooling families in Philadelphia, PA. Peabody Journal of Education, 94(3), 281–296.
- Ray, B. (2015). African American homeschool parents’ motivations for homeschooling and their Black children’s academic achievement. Journal of School Choice, 9(1), 71–96.
- Renzulli, J. S. (1998). Three-ring conception of giftedness. In S. M. Baum, S. M. Reis, & L. R. Maxfield (Eds.), Nurturing the gifts and talents of primary grade students. Creative Learning Press.
- Rhodes, L. (1992). Focusing attention on the individual in identification of gifted Black students. Roeper Review, 14(3), 108–110.
- Robson, K. L., Anisef, P., Brown, R., & George, R. C. (2018). Underrepresented students and the transition to post-secondary education: Comparing two Toronto cohorts. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 48(1), 39–59. https://doi.org/10.47678/cjhe.v48i1.187972
- Robson, K. L., Anisef, P., Brown, R. S., & Nagaoka, J. (2019). A comparison of factors determining the transition to postsecondary education in Toronto and Chicago. Research in Comparative and International Education, 14(3), 338–356.
- Robson, K. L., Anisef, P., Brown, R. S., & Parekh, G. (2014). The intersectionality of postsecondary pathways: The case of high school students with special education needs. Canadian Review of Sociology, 51(3), 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12044
- Robson, K. L., Anisef, P., Newton, L., & Tecle, S. (2015). An analysis of provincial and institutional policy around the inclusion of marginalized students in Ontario post-secondary education. Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges, and Universities.
- Robson, K. L., Brown, R., Maier, R., & Ranjibar, M. (2017). Unraveling the knot: Understanding the diverse postsecondary pathways of Toronto high school students. Ontario Council on Articulation and Transfer.
- Roda, A., & Wells, A. S. (2013). School choice policies and racial segregation: Where White parents’ good intentions, anxiety, and privilege collide. American Journal of Education, 119(2), 261–293. https://doi.org/10.1086/668753
- Ron Fanfair. (2021, June 29). Toronto public school board Centre of Black Excellence for Student Achievement launched. https://www.ronfanfair.com/home/2021/6/29/62qwojipddqrrz39v2q1whk4na47ay
- ross, kihana miraya. (2020, June 4). Call it what it is: Anti-Blackness. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/04/opinion/george-floyd-anti-blackness.html
- Shizha, E. (2019). Transnationalism and ethnic enclaves among immigrants: Resistance to Canadianization? In M. T. Kariwo, N. Asadi, & C. El Bouhali (Eds.), Interrogating models of diversity within a multicultural environment (pp. 117–137). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03913-4_7
- Sikkink, D., & Emerson, M. O. (2008). School choice and racial segregation in US schools: The role of parents’ education. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(2), 267–293.
- Smedley, A., & Smedley, B. D. (2005). Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race. The American Psychologist, 60(1), 16–26.
- Statistics Canada. (2017a). Focus on geography series, 2016 census—Census metropolitan area of Toronto (immigration and ethnocultural diversity) [Data products]. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/fogs-spg/Facts-CMA-Eng.cfm?TOPIC=7&LANG=Eng&GK=CMA&GC=535
- Statistics Canada. (2017b). Focus on geography series, 2016 census—Census metropolitan area of Toronto (population and dwelling counts) [Data products]. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/fogs-spg/Facts-cma-eng.cfm?LANG=Eng&GK=CMA&GC=535&TOPIC=1
- Statistics Canada. (2023). Profile table, census profile, 2021 census of population—Toronto [Census metropolitan area], Ontario (Catalogue no. 98-316-X2021001). https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E
- Stinson, D. W. (2011). When the “burden of acting White” is not a burden: School success and African American male students. The Urban Review, 43(1), 43–65.
- Tan, J. Y. (2007). Ethnic enclaves and immigrant well-being [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Queen’s University.
- Tatum, B. D. (2017). Why are all the kids sitting together in the cafeteria. Basic Books.
- Teotonio, I. (2022, October 20). ‘We basically shattered a lot of dreams’: Some trustees push to reopen debate on specialized schools. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2022/10/20/we-basically-shattered-a-lot-of-dreams-some-trustees-push-to-reopen-debate-on-specialized-schools.html
- Teotonio, I. (2023, May 30). Dreams dashed; doors opened. How TDSB’s first year of specialty school lottery admissions played out. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2023/05/30/dreams-dashed-doors-opened-how-tdsbs-first-year-of-specialty-school-lottery-admissions-played-out.html
- Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357–385.
- Theokas, C., & Saaris, R. (2013). Finding America’s missing AP and IB students. Shattering Expectations Series. The Education Trust. https://edtrust.org/resource/finding-americas-missing-ap-and-ib-students/
- Tomlinson, S. (1997). Diversity, choice, and ethnicity: The effects of educational markets on ethnic minorities. Oxford Review of Education, 23(1), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305498970230106
- Toronto Board of Education. (1988). Education of Black students in Toronto schools. Board of Education for the City of Toronto.
- Toronto District School Board. (n.d.-a). Africentric alternative school (GR. JK-08). https://www.tdsb.on.ca/Find-your/Schools/schno/3949
- Toronto District School Board. (n.d.-b). Africentric secondary programs. http://www.tdsb.on.ca/HighSchool/GoingtoHighSchool/SpecializedSchoolsandPrograms/AfricentricSecondaryPrograms.aspx
- Toronto District School Board. (2012). Grade 9 cohort study (2006-2011). http://www.tdsb.on.ca/_site/ViewItem.asp?siteid=172&menuid=28147&pageid=24206
- Toronto District School Board. (2022). Toronto District School Board—Policy P100 (Student interest programs policy). https://ppf.tdsb.on.ca/uploads/files/live/97/2275.pdf
- Tyson, K., Darity, W., & Castellino, D. R. (2005). It’s not “a Black thing”: Understanding the burden of acting White and other dilemmas of high achievement. American Sociological Review, 70(4), 582–605. https://doi.org/10.2307/4145378
- United Nations. (2017a). Concluding observations on the twenty-first to twenty-third periodic reports of Canada: Committee on the elimination of racial discrimination. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1311150?ln=en
- United Nations. (2017b). Report of the working group of experts on people of African descent on its mission to Canada. https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G17/239/58/PDF/G1723958.pdf?OpenElement
- Whiting, G. W., & Ford, D. Y. (2009). Multicultural issues: Black students and Advanced Placement classes: Summary, concerns, and recommendations. Gifted Child Today, 32(1), 23–26.
- Wright, E. N. (1971). Students’ background and its relationship to class and programme in school. Board of Education for the City of Toronto, Research Department.
- Yancy, G. (2016). Black bodies, White gazes: The continuing significance of race in America. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Yoon, S. Y., & Gentry, M. (2009). Racial and ethnic representation in gifted programs: Current status of and implications for gifted Asian American students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(2), 121–136.