Résumés
Résumé
Si plusieurs théories avancent que la perception de compétence tient un rôle central dans la motivation et le rendement scolaires, la direction de leurs relations n’est pas consensuelle. Cette étude longitudinale couvrant la transition primaire-secondaire examine cette question. Dès la 5e année du primaire et une fois l’an durant les 4 années suivantes, 830 élèves ont répondu à un questionnaire sur leur perception de compétence et leur motivation, alors que leurs enseignants ont rapporté leur rendement. Une fois la contribution du sexe et des habiletés mentales des élèves, et la scolarité des parents contrôlées, les résultats indiquent une association bidirectionnelle entre la perception de compétence et le rendement. La perception de compétence prédit systématiquement la motivation, mais pas l’inverse, et il existe aussi peu de liens entre la motivation et le rendement. La discussion met l’accent sur l’importance du développement d’une perception de compétence positive dans le fonctionnement scolaire.
Mots-clés :
- perception de compétence,
- motivation,
- rendement,
- transition primaire-secondaire
Abstract
Although several theories suggest that the perception of competence plays a central role in motivation and academic performance, there is no consensus on the direction of their relationship. This longitudinal study covering the primary-secondary transition examines this question. From the 5th year of primary school and once a year during the following 4 years, 830 pupils answered a questionnaire on their perception of competence and their motivation. Their performance was reported by their teachers. Controlling for the effect of pupils’ gender and mental abilities and parental education, the results indicate a bidirectional association between perceived competence and performance. The perception of competence systematically predicts motivation, but not the reverse. There is little relationship between motivation and performance. The discussion emphasizes the importance of developing a positive perception of competence in school functioning.
Keywords:
- Perceived competence,
- motivation,
- performance,
- achievement,
- high school transition
Parties annexes
Bibliographie
- Acharya, N. et Joshi, S. (2009). Influence of parents’ education on achievement motivation of adolescents. Indian Journal Social Science Researches, 6(1), 72–79.
- Akos, P., Rose, R. A. et Orthner, D. (2015). Sociodemographic moderators of middle school transition effects on academic achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(2), 170–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431614529367
- Areepattamannil, S., Freeman, J. G. et Klinger, D. A. (2011). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement among Indian adolescents in Canada and India. Social Psychology of Education, 14(3), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-011-9155-1
- Babad, E. (1993). Pygmalion: 25 years after interpersonal expectations in the classroom. Dans P. D. Blanck (dir.), Interpersonal expectations: Theory, research, and applications (p. 125–153). Cambridge University Press; Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527708.007
- Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
- Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117–148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3
- Begeny, J. C. et Buchanan, H. (2010). Teachers’ judgments of students’ early literacy skills measured by the Early Literacy Skills Assessment: Comparisons of teachers with and without assessment administration experience. Psychology in the Schools, 47(8), 859–868. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20509
- Belzil, C. (2004). Un modèle économétrique dynamique de l’abandon scolaire au Québec et en Ontario. L’Actualité économique, 80(2-3), 363–381. https://doi.org/10.7202/011391ar
- Benner, A. D. (2011). The transition to high school: Current knowledge, future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 23(3), 299–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9152-0
- Benner, A. D. et Graham, S. (2009). The transition to high school as a developmental process among multiethnic urban youth. Child Development, 80(2), 356–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01265.x
- Bhar, S. S. et Kyrios, M. (2016). The self-concept: Theory and research. Dans M. Kyrios, R. Moulding, G. Doron, S. S. Bhar, M. Nedeljkovic et M. Mikulincer (dir.), The self in understanding and treating psychological disorders (p. 8–18). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139941297.003
- Bian, L., Leslie, S.-J. et Cimpian, A. (2017). Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children’s interests. Science, 355(6323), 389–391. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aah6524
- Bonneville-Roussy, A., Bouffard, T. et Vezeau, C. (2017). Trajectories of self-evaluation bias in primary and secondary school: Parental antecedents and academic consequences. Journal of School Psychology, 63, 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.02.002
- Bordeleau, L. (2000). Le développement de la motivation des élèves en début de scolarisation [Thèse de doctorat inédite]. Université du Québec à Montréal.
- Bouffard, T. (2008, mai). La motivation à apprendre : stabilité et fiabilité [Conférence]. École doctorale sur la motivation, Université de Fribourg, Suisse.
- Bouffard, T., Boileau, L. et Vezeau, C. (2001). Students’ transition from elementary to high school and changes of the relationship between motivation and academic performance. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 16(4), 589–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173199
- Bouffard, T., Boisvert, M. et Vezeau, C. (2003). The illusion of incompetence and its correlates among elementary school children and their parents. Learning and Individual Differences, 14(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2003.07.001
- Bouffard, T., Markovits, H., Vezeau, C., Boisvert, M. et Dumas, C. (1998). The relation between accuracy of self-perception and cognitive development. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68(3), 321–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1998.tb01294.x
- Bouffard, T., Pansu, P. et Boissicat, N. (2013). Quand se juger meilleur ou moins bon qu’il ne l’est s’avère profitable ou nuisible à l’élève [Note de synthèse]. Revue française de pédagogie, (182), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.4000/rfp.4020
- Bouffard, T., Roy, M. et Vezeau, C. (2006). Self-perceptions, temperament, socioemotional adjustment and perceptions of parental support of chronically underachieving children. International Journal of Educational Research, 43(4-5), 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2006.06.003
- Bouffard, T., Vezeau, C., Roy, M. et Lengelé, A. (2011). Stability of biases in self-evaluation and relations to well-being among elementary school children. International Journal of Educational Research, 50(4), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2011.08.003
- Bressoux, P. et Pansu, P. (2003). Quand les enseignants jugent leurs élèves. Presses universitaires de France.
- Calero, M. D., Garcia-Martín, M. B., Jiménez, M. I., Kazén, M. et Araque, A. (2007). Self-regulation advantage for high-IQ children: Findings from a research study. Learning and Individual Differences, 17(4), 328–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.012
- Cantin, S. et Boivin, M. (2004). Change and stability in children’s social network and self-perceptions during transition from elementary to junior high school. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(6), 561–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250444000289
- Chen, Q., Kong, Y., Gao, W. et Mo, L. (2018). Effects of socioeconomic status, parent–child relationship, and learning motivation on reading ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, article 1297. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297
- Chouinard, R., Bowen, F., Fallu, J.-S., Lefrançois, P. et Poirier, L. (2012). La transition au secondaire et l’incidence de mesures de soutien sur la motivation, l’adaptation psycho-sociale et les apprentissages des élèves [Rapport de recherche] (no 2012-RP-146936). https://frq.gouv.qc.ca/app/uploads/2021/08/prs_chouinardr_resume_transition-secondaire.pdf
- Chouinard, R., Roy, N., Archambault, I. et Smith, J. (2017). Relationships with teachers and achievement motivation in the context of the transition to secondary school. Interdisciplinary Education and Psychology, 2(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.31532/InterdiscipEducPsychol.2.1.001
- Chung, J., Schriber, R. A. et Robins, R. W. (2016). Positive illusions in the academic context: A longitudinal study of academic self-enhancement in college. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(10), 1384–1401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216662866
- Cleary, T. J., Callan, G. L., Malatesta, J. et Adams, T. (2015). Examining the level of convergence among self-regulated learning microanalytic processes, achievement, and a self-report questionnaire. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(5), 439–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282915594739
- Coelho, V. A. et Romão, A. M. (2017). The impact of secondary school transition on self-concept and self-esteem. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 22(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psicoe.2016.10.001
- Craven, R. G. et Marsh, H. W. (1997). Threats to gifted and talented students’ self-concepts in the big pond: Research results and educational implications. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 6(2), 7–17.
- Deci, E. L. et Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801
- Deci, E. L. et Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. Dans P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski et E. T. Higgins (dir.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (p. 416–437). SAGE Publications.
- Deci, E. L. et Ryan, R. M. (dir.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. University Rochester Press.
- Denoncourt, I., Bouffard, T., Dubois, V. et Mc Intyre, M. (2004). Relations entre les facteurs du profil motivationnel d’élèves de sixième année du primaire et leurs anticipations envers le secondaire. Revue des sciences de l’éducation, 30(1), 71–89. https://doi.org/10.7202/011770ar
- Duchesne, S., Ratelle, C. F. et Roy, A. (2012). Worries about the middle school transition and subsequent adjustment: The moderating role of classroom goal structure. Journal of Early Adolescence, 32(5), 681–710. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431611419506
- Duchesne, S., Ratelle, C. F., Poitras, S.-C. et Drouin, E. (2009). Early adolescent attachment to parents, emotional problems, and teacher-academic worries about the middle school transition. Journal of Early Adolescence, 29(5), 743–766. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431608325502
- Eccles, J. S. (2005). Studying the development of learning and task motivation. Learning and Instruction, 15(2), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.04.012
- Eccles, J. S. et Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153
- Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C. et Mac Iver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48(2), 90–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.2.90
- Ehrlinger, J. et Dunning, D. (2003). How chronic self-views influence (and potentially mislead) estimates of performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.5
- Ersanlı, C. Y. (2015). The relationship between students’ academic self-efficacy and language learning motivation: A study of 8th graders. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 472–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.534
- Evans, D., Borriello, G. A. et Field, A. P. (2018). A review of the academic and psychological impact of the transition to secondary education. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, article 1482. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01482
- Fall, A.M. et Roberts, G. (2012). High school dropouts: Interactions between the social context, self perceptions, and school engagement. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 787–798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.11.004
- Garon-Carrier, G., Boivin, M., Guay, F., Kovas, Y., Dionne, G., Lemelin, J.-P., Séguin, J. R., Vitaro, F. et Tremblay, R. E. (2016). Intrinsic motivation and achievement in mathematics in elementary school: A longitudinal investigation of their association. Child Development, 87(1), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12458
- Gottfried, A. E. (1985). Academic intrinsic motivation in elementary and junior high school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 631–645. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.77.6.631
- Gottfried, A. E. (1990). Academic intrinsic motivation in young elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(3), 525–538. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.3.525
- Gottfried, A. E., Nylund-Gibson, K., Gottfried, A. W., Diane Morovati, D. et Gonzalez, A. M. (2017). Trajectories from academic intrinsic motivation to need for cognition and educational attainment. The Journal of Educational Research, 110(6), 642–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2016.1171199
- Gresham, F. M., MacMillan, D. L., Beebe-Frankenberger, M. E. et Bocian, K. M. (2000). Treatment integrity in learning disabilities intervention research: Do we really know how treatments are implemented? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15(4), 198–205. https://doi.org/10.1207/SLDRP1504_4
- Guay, F., Marsh, H. W. et Boivin, M. (2003). Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Developmental perspectives on their causal ordering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.124
- Guez, A., Peyre, H., Le Cam, M., Gauvrit, N. et Ramus, F. (2018). Are high-IQ students more at risk of school failure? Intelligence, 71, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.09.003
- Guilbert, D. J. (1990). Évaluation psychométrique du concept de soi chez les enfants d’âge scolaire [Mémoire de maîtrise inédit]. Université du Québec à Montréal.
- Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered. Toward a developmental model. Human Development, 21(1), 34–64. https://doi.org/10.1159/000271574
- Harter, S. (1982). The Perceived Competence Scale for Children. Child development, 53(1), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129640
- Harter, S. (1986). Processes underlying the construction, maintenance and enhancement of the self-concept in children. Dans J. Suls et A. G. Greenwald (dir.), Psychological perspectives on the self (volume 3, p. 136–182). Lawrence Erlbaum.
- Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. Guilford Press.
- Harter, S., Whitesell, N. R. et Kowalski, P. (1992). Individual differences in the effects of educational transitions on young adolescents’ perceptions of competence and motivational orientation. American Educational Research Journal, 29(4), 777–807. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312029004777
- Hoffman, K. B., Cole, D. A., Martin, J. M., Tram, J. et Seroczynski, A. D. (2000). Are the discrepancies between self- and others’ appraisals of competence predictive or reflective of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: A longitudinal study, part II. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(4), 651–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.109.4.651
- Huang, C. (2011). Self-concept and academic achievement: A meta-analysis of longitudinal relations. Journal of School Psychology, 49(5), 505–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011.07.001
- Hurwitz, J. T., Elliott, S. N. et Braden, J. P. (2007). The influence of test familiarity and student disability status upon teachers’ judgments of students’ test performance. School Psychology Quarterly, 22(2), 115–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/1045-3830.22.2.115
- Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S. et Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73(2), 509–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00421
- Karbach, J., Gottschling, J., Spengler, M., Hegewald, K. et Spinath, F. M. (2013). Parental involvement and general cognitive ability as predictors of domain-specific academic achievement in early adolescence. Learning and Instruction, 23, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.09.004
- Kearney, M. W. (2017). Cross-lagged panel analysis. Dans M. Allen (dir.), The SAGE encyclopedia of communication research methods (volume 1, p. 313–314). SAGE publications. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411.n117
- Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4e éd.). Guilford Press.
- Kurman, J. (2006). Self-enhancement, self-regulation and self-improvement following failures. British Journal of Social Psychology, 45(2), 339–356. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466605X42912
- La Paro, K. M., Hamre, B. K., Locasale-Crouch, J., Pianta, R. C., Bryant, D., Early, D., Clifford, R., Barbarin, O., Howes, C. et Burchinal, M. (2009). Quality in kindergarten classrooms: Observational evidence for the need to increase children’s learning opportunities in early education classrooms. Early Education and Development, 20(4), 657–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280802541965
- Labranche, A.-A., Bouffard, T. et Vezeau, C. (2021). Le rôle du sentiment d’imposture et les anticipations d’élèves de sixième année dans leur adaptation au début du secondaire. Journal sur l’identité, les relations interpersonnelles et les relations intergroupes, 14, 47–63. https://www.jiriri.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/V14_A4.pdf
- Lévesque-Guillemette, R., Bouffard, T. et Vezeau, C. (2015). Les liens entre le jugement de l’enseignant sur les biais d’autoévaluation de compétence de l’élève et la qualité de leur relation. Revue des sciences de l’éducation, 41(2), 179–197. https://doi.org/10.7202/1034032ar
- Li, Y. et Lerner, R. M. (2011). Trajectories of school engagement during adolescence: Implications for grades, depression, delinquency, and substance use. Developmental Psychology, 47(1), 233–347. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021307
- Lipps, G. (2005, février). Faire la transition : les répercussions du passage de l’école primaire à l’école secondaire sur le rendement scolaire et l’adaptation psychologique des adolescents [Document de recherche] (no 11F0019MIF). Statistique Canada Ottawa, division des études sur la famille et le travail. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/fr/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2005242-fra.pdf?st=cXN88WkY
- Lopez, D. F., Little, T. D., Oettingen, G. et Baltes, P. B. (1998). Self-regulation and school performance: Is there optimal level of action-control? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 70(1), 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.1998.2446
- Losier, G. F. et Vallerand, R. J. (1994). The temporal relationship between perceived competence and self-determined motivation. The Journal of Social Psychology, 134(6), 793–801. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1994.9923014
- Luo, Y. L. L., Kovas, Y., Haworth, C. M. A. et Plomin, R. (2011). The etiology of mathematical self-evaluation and mathematics achievement: Understanding the relationship using a cross-lagged twin study from ages 9 to 12. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(6), 710–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.001
- Marsh, H. W. et Craven, R. G. (2006). Reciprocal effects of self-concept and performance from a multidimensional perspective: Beyond seductive pleasure and unidimensional perspectives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 133–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00010.x
- Marsh, H. W. et Martin, A. (2011). Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Relations and causal ordering. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(1), 59–77. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709910X503501
- Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M. et Yeung, A. S. (1999). Causal ordering of academic self-concept and achievement: Reanalysis of a pioneering study and... Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3403_2
- Marsh, H. W., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Köller, O. et Baumert, J. (2005). Academic self-concept, interest, grades, and standardized test scores: Reciprocal effects models of causal ordering. Child Development, 76(2), 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00853.x
- Modecki, K. L., Blomfield Neira, C. et Barber, B. L. (2018). Finding what fits: Breadth of participation at the transition to high school mitigates declines in self-concept. Developmental Psychology, 54(10), 1954–1970. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000570
- Muntoni, F. et Retelsdorf, J. (2018). Gender-specific teacher expectations in reading: The role of teachers’ gender stereotypes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.012
- Murayama, K., Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S. et vom Hofe, R. (2013). Predicting long-term growth in students’ mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies. Child Development, 84(4), 1475–1490. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12036
- Muthén, L. K. et Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus User’s Guide (8e éd.). Muthén & Muthén. https://www.statmodel.com/download/usersguide/MplusUserGuideVer_8.pdf
- Opdenakker, M.-C., Maulana, R. et den Brok, P. (2012). Teacher–student interpersonal relationships and academic motivation within one school year: Developmental changes and linkage. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 23(1), 95–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2011.619198
- Öqvist, A. et Malmström, M. (2018). What motivates students? A study on the effects of teacher leadership and students’ self-efficacy. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 21(2), 155–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2017.1355480
- Otis, A. S et Lennon, R. T. (2005). Test d’habileté scolaire Otis-Lennon–version pour francophones du Canada (OLSAT CDN-F). Pearson clinical. https://www.pearsonclinical.ca/store/caassessments/en/c/Test-d%27habilet%C3%A9-scolaire-Otis-Lennon%E2%80%94version-pour-francophones-du-Canada/p/P100008303.html
- Parker, A. K. (2010). A longitudinal investigation of young adolescents’ self-concepts in the middle grades. Research in Middle Level Education (RMLE) Online, 33(10), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2010.11462073
- Phillips, D. (1984). The illusion of incompetence among academically competent children. Child Development, 55(6), 2000–2016. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129775
- Plante, I., de la Sablonnière, R., Aronson, J. M. et Théorêt, M. (2013). Gender stereotype endorsement and achievement-related outcomes: The role of competence beliefs and task values. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(3), 225–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.03.004
- Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y. et Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
- Quiroga, C. V., Janosz, M., Bisset, S. et Morin, A. J. S. (2013). Early adolescent depression symptoms and school dropout: Mediating processes involving self-reported academic competence and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 552–560. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031524
- Reeve, J. (2002). Self-determination theory applied to educational settings. Dans E. L. Deci et R. M. Ryan (dir.), Handbook of self-determination research (volume 2, p. 183–204). University of Rochester Press.
- Ryan, A. M., Shim, S. S. et Makara, K. A. (2013). Changes in academic adjustment and relational self-worth across the transition to middle school. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(9), 1372–1384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9984-7
- Sarrazin, G., McInnis, C. E. et Vaillancourt, R. (1983). Test d’habileté scolaire Otis-Lennon : Niveau élémentaire II. Institut de recherches psychologiques.
- Scherrer, V. et Preckel, F. (2019). Development of motivational variables and self-esteem during the school career: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Review of Educational Research, 89(2), 211–258. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318819127
- Schlegel, R. J., Hicks, J. A., Arndt, A. et King, L. A. (2009). Thine own self: True self-concept accessibility and meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 473–490. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014060
- Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A. et King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338
- Schwerdt, G. et West, M. R. (2013). The impact of alternative grade configurations on student outcomes through middle and high school. Journal of Public Economics, 97, 308–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2012.10.002
- Serbin, L. et Bukowski, W. (2009). The transition from primary to secondary schooling: Strategies for success in vulnerable populations [Rapport final] (no 2005-PS-103501). Centre for Research in Human Development, Concordia University. https://frq.gouv.qc.ca/app/uploads/2021/08/pt_serbinl_rapport-2009_transition-primaire-secondaire.pdf
- Shweder, R. A., Goodnow, J. J., Hatano, G., LeVine, R. A., Markus, H. R. et Miller, P. J. (2007). The cultural psychology of development: One mind, many mentalities. Dans W. Damon et R. M. Lerner (dir.), Handbook of child psychology. Volume 1. Theoretical models of human development (p. 716–792). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0113
- Skaalvik, E. M. et Valås, H. (1999). Relations among achievement, self-concept, and motivation in mathematics and language arts: A longitudinal study. The Journal of Experimental Education, 67(2), 135–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220979909598349
- Spinath, B. et Spinath, F. M. (2005). Longitudinal analysis of the link between learning motivation and competence beliefs among elementary school children. Learning and Instruction, 15(2), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.04.008
- Spinath, B. et Steinmayr, R. (2008). Longitudinal analysis of intrinsic motivation and competence beliefs: Is there a relation over time? Child Development, 79(5), 1555–1569. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01205.x
- Valentine, J. C. et DuBois, D. L. (2005). Effects of self-beliefs on academic achievement and vice versa. Separating the chicken from the egg. Dans H. W. Marsh, R. G. Craven et D. M. Mclnerney (dir.), International advances in self research: New frontiers of self research (Volume 2, p. 53–77). Information Age Publishing.
- Valentine, J. C., DuBois, D. L. et Cooper, H. (2004). The relation between self-beliefs and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 39(2), 111–133. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3902_3
- Van Lier, P. A. C., Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., Brendgen, M., Tremblay, R. E. et Boivin, M. (2012). Peer victimization, poor academic achievement, and the link between childhood externalizing and internalizing problems. Child Development, 83(5), 1775–1788. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01802.x
- Viljaranta, J., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Poikkeus, A.-M., Aunola, K. et Nurmi, J.-E. (2009). Cross-lagged relations between task motivation and performance in arithmetic and literacy in kindergarten. Learning and Instruction, 19(4), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.06.011
- Voyer, D. et Voyer, S. D. (2014). Gender differences in scholastic achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1174–1204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036620
- Wang, M.-T. et Eccles, J. S. (2013). School context, achievement motivation, and academic engagement: A longitudinal study of school engagement using a multidimensional perspective. Learning and Instruction, 28, 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.04.002
- Watt, H. M. G. (2004). Development of adolescents’ self-perceptions, values, and task perceptions according to gender and domain in 7th- through 11th-grade Australian students. Child Development, 75(5), 1556–1574. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00757.x
- Weinstein, C. E. et Acee, T. W. (2013). Helping college students become more strategic and self-regulated learners. Dans H. Bembenutty, T. J. Cleary et A. Kitsantas (dir.), Applications of self-regulated learning across diverse disciplines: A tribute to Barry J. Zimmerman (p. 197–236). Information Age Publishing.
- West, P., Sweeting, H. et Young, R. (2010). Transition matters: Pupils’ experiences of the primary–secondary school transition in the West of Scotland and consequences for well‐being and attainment. Research Papers in Education, 25(1), 21–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671520802308677