EN :

This paper analyses the reform of the law governing professional occupations in Quebec from a socio-political standpoint. By focusing on the ideological level, the reform is seen as the result of the interaction of five competing ideologies : corporatism traditionnally dominant in the professional laws, technocratism that asserted itself in the context of the Revolution tranquille and gave its first impulse to the reform, neoclassic liberalism as expressed in the works of the Chicago School economists, communitarian ideology inspiring the practices of community-centered services among popular groups and consumerism advocating the interests of middle and upper class consumers.

In conclusion, it appears that the Code des professions enacted in 1973 proceeded from a compromise between corporatism and technocratism which turned largely to the advantage of the former. But the next step could be quite different. As a matter of fact, the recent positions expressed by the Office des professions du Québec reveal a clear tendency to rely upon consumerism and more fundamentally upon liberalism to carry on the reform. If so, the private law perspective based on a new contract of professional service would become more determinative than articulated public policies in the future regulation of the professional services industry. Bu obtaining a significant reduction of traditional corporatist powers — particularly the price-fixing one — while preventing a more pronounced public intervention, liberal forces would be the ultimate beneficiaries of the reform.

EN :

This paper describes the limitations on the constitutional right to strike that apply to public employees in France.

While recognizing the right to strike for all salaried workers, whether employed in the private or public sector, the Preamble to the 1946 Constitution, incorporated by reference into the present Constitution, allows for limitations being imposed on that right by statute.

Indeed, specific legislation has either prohibited or limited the right to strike for various classes of public employees. This has been held constitutionally valid insofar as the statutory bar or restriction is required to prevent essential functions of the State from being interrupted or to ensure that the vital needs of the country are being provided for.

Even where no specific restrictive legislation applies, strikes by the staff of « public services » — including not only central and local government employees, but also employees of major nationalized industries, institutions such as hospitals, and even private undertakings providing some public utility or service — are subject, under the Labour Code, to a number of restrictions. In particular, five days' notice of the strike must be given by a representative union. And certains forms of striking, such as rotating strikes, are prohibited.

In addition, the employer authority may, under the doctrine of « essential services », make administrative regulations identifying which units or staff positions are considered essential. These regulations are subject to review by the administrative courts on the basis that the constitutional right to strike may only be curtailed insofar as is needed to preserve State authority and security or the safety of the public.

EN :

This paper describes the specific nature of proceedings to quash decisions of local authorities under a number of provisions in Québec statutes. Similar provisions exist in the law of other Canadian provinces.

Paying relatively scant attention to the historical background of such procedures, the paper highlights the limitations and deficiencies inherent in them. Not all interested parties may bring them ; not all decisions of local authorities may be reviewed in this way ; not all remedies are open to be sought, especially those of a monetary nature; and fairly stringent time-limits apply to them. Taken together, these constraints disclose the true nature of such proceedings : they are an additional safeguard given to ratepayers as specially interested parties, to broaden the access to judicial review of actions by local authorities. These constraints also explain to a large extent why the existence of that additional avenue of recourse has not materially affected the use of general administrative-law remedies, whether direct and offensive such as actions to annul or declarations, or indirect and defensive such as evocation or exception on grounds of illegality.

EN :

This paper deals with the exclusive sale contract or solus agreement. Its first part identifies some characteristic features of this type of agreement, which quite often is not only aimed at regulating the exercise of trade, but also serves as a technique of market organization and economic power concentration. The impact of the increasing currency of such commercial practices on the free market justifies consideration of the various forms of control that can be exercised by public authorities in order to preserve free competition. Control can be achieved through the judiciary applying concepts such as public order in civil law or public policy at common law. However, in view of the courts' reluctance to interfere with such instances of private economic power and their indifference towards the economic inequities inherent in such agreements for the distributor, legislative intervention has become necessary to protect the free market. Thus the Combines Investigation Act was amended in 1976 to allow regulation of commercial practices such as refusal to deal, consignment selling, exclusive dealing, market restriction and tied selling.

EN :

Procedure before quasi-judicial boards and tribunals has recently attracted abundant comment as well as some criticism. In administrative law, rules of evidence form an important part of procedure. In this paper, the author first tries to define what are the sources of the law of evidence before quasi-judicial agencies in Québec : the common law, the two Codes, statutes and regulations. Then follows in two parts an overview of the principal rules that govern the manner in which claims and arguments are brought before tribunals and the extent to which specific provisions or general principles of administrative law allow tribunals themselves to gather evidence required for the purposes of a decision. The paper suggests that administrative justice requires that the tribunal really be « master of the procedure », within the framework of natural justice.

EN :

This paper is basically an analysis of art. 1003 of the Code of Civil Procedure of Québec.

Following a brief survey of the origins of class actions in English and American law, the Québec class action is defined as a form of procedure available to plaintiffs only, based on the existence of a group acting through a representative. It is then distinguished from similar forms of procedure, whether under Québec law (art. 59 and 67 C.C.P.) or foreign law (constitution de partie civile, relator, Adhasionsprozess, etc.). The introductory part goes on to examine the relationship of class actions to basic principles of civil procedure in Québec (such as the rules on standing), to challenge some widely-held beliefs concerning class actions and their social and economic impact, and finally to underline the unitary character of class actions under Québec law.

Brought under closer analysis, the introductory paragraph of art. 1003 underscores the requirement of a hearing by the court, indicates the nature and timing of judicial authorization, and determines the scope and extent of the conferment of representative status. The case of groups referred to in art. 1048 C.C.P. is examined in this connection.

The paper then surveys in turn each of the lettered paragraphs of art. 1003 C.C.P., in the light of similar provisions in Québec and other jurisdictions, with special reference to the American Federal rule. Similitudes and contrasts are thereby brought into view. It thus appears that paragraph d) is alone in showing definite American influence; indeed, discussion of this paragraph centres on foreign law. A critical review is made of the cases under each of the paragraphs. Certain approaches to the construction of art. 1003 are also criticized, especially those implying further conditions to the grant of representative status or involving the use or irrelevant tests in this regard, in spite of differences between American and Québec procedures or between the American and Canadian constitutions. Finally, the paper underlines the requirement, imposed by art. 1022 and 1024 C.C.P., that conditions laid down by art. 1003 continue to exist throughout the duration of the case.

The paper concludes that the Québec class action is probably the most liberal of all, and may open up new approaches toward using court proceedings to implement policy. However, it is feared that the courts may prove unreceptive to the innovative spirit behind this form of action; indeed, some cases decided so far seem to show a serious misapprehension of its character.

EN :

This paper summarizes the changes brought about in French administrative law by a law of 1979 imposing on administrative authorities a broad duty to give reasons for their decisions.

Traditionally, the state of the law had been that, failing a specific statutory requirement, administrative authorities were under no obligation to provide reasons. This, however, had not prevented the Conseil d'État from reviewing administrative action — even of a clearly discretionary nature — for unlawfulness or impropriety of motives.

The new law is aimed at improving communications between administrative authorities and the public. It reverses the former rule for three broad classes of decisions concerning individual cases : those having an unfavourable effect on rights and interests, those allowing for more favourable treatment than is provided under a rule of general application, and those made by social security and unemployment assistance agencies.

Alleviation or disregard of the new rule is allowed in cases of emergency, where confidentiality or secrecy is required by law, or where, no decision being made in a prescribed time, a negative decision is deemed to have been rendered.

Guidelines for the implementation of the new law have been issued by the Prime Minister to all Ministers; the latter have in turn issued more detailed instructions to decision-making officers in their departments. Further guidance will have to come from the administrative courts when they are called upon to review decisions for insufficiency or impropriety of reasons.

Ultimately, however, achievement of the goal of improving the quality of intercourse between citizens and administrative authorities will require the development of a more open and trustful relationship between them.

EN :

Looking back to the Roman era, one can see that the regulation of fisheries already formed a coherent whole which is still interesting to analyse today.

The oceans, seas and their shores are res communes, meaning that no one can own these things, or that everyone can make use of these things freely as long as this does not interfere with someone else's right. By contrast, rivers and their banks as well as harbours are classified res publicae, i.e. State property, but assigned to common use. Some fishing places were the exclusive property of the Roman State (res in patrimonio populi) and liable to be leased.

Fishing was a legally well defined activity, under strict control by the State: later generations have drawn inspiration from Roman rules in this field.

EN :

The purpose of this paper is to advocate the creation of a legislative drafting manual that would suit the needs of all those concerned with the legislative process.

The order and editing of the Manual are examined in two successive parts.

The proposed Manual outlines an editing, conservation and retrieval method. A comprehensive classification scheme would cover all steps, all aspects and all fields of legislation.

An editor / coordinator would assure control and follow-up on the Manual which would be published in parts, through a Bulletin. The classification scheme would allow users to classify all sections or parts according to their needs.