Résumés
Abstract
Despite the international 3Rs principles that recommends replacing, reducing and refining the use of animals in medical experimentation, it remains difficult to obtain funding in Canada for medical research that respects these principles, particularly with regard to replacement. This observation led our team to review the literature on the arguments for and against animal experimentation in the fields of oncology and radiobiology. This article presents a synthesis of these arguments. Using the method created by McCullough and colleagues to conduct critical reviews of the ethics literature, we analysed 25 texts discussing the arguments for and against animal experimentation in oncology and radiobiology. Six broad categories of arguments for animal experimentation and eleven categories of arguments against it emerged from our analyses. Furthermore, the arguments against animal testing are more convincing from both an empirical and normative perspective. Also, most arguments obtained are transferable in other fields of medicine. In addition to the literature review, a critical reflection was conducted and other arguments were discussed. It seems that a conservative culture persists in medical research, despite the scientific evidence and ethical arguments to the contrary.
Keywords:
- animal experiment,
- medical research,
- argument,
- oncology,
- radiobiology,
- ethics
Résumé
Malgré les principes internationaux des 3R qui recommande de remplacer, réduire et raffiner l’utilisation des animaux dans l’expérimentation médicale, il reste difficile d’obtenir au Canada le financement de recherches médicales qui respectent ces principes, notamment en ce qui concerne le remplacement. Ce constat a amené notre équipe à faire une revue de la littérature sur les arguments pour et contre l’expérimentation animale dans les domaines de l’oncologie et de la radiobiologie. Cet article présente une synthèse de ces arguments. En utilisant la méthode créée par McCullough et collègues pour réaliser des revues critiques de la littérature en éthique, nous avons analysé 25 écrits discutant des arguments pour et contre l’expérimentation animale en oncologie et en radiobiologie. Six grandes catégories d’arguments en faveur de l’expérimentation animale et onze catégories d’arguments contre celle-ci sont ressorties de nos analyses. En outre, les arguments contre l’expérimentation animale sont plus convaincants d’un point de vue empirique et normatif. De plus, la plupart des arguments obtenus sont transférables dans d’autres domaines de la médecine. En plus de l’analyse documentaire, une réflexion critique a été menée et d’autres arguments ont été discutés. Il semble qu’une culture conservatrice persiste dans la recherche médicale, malgré les preuves scientifiques et les arguments éthiques contraires.
Mots-clés :
- expérimentation animale,
- recherche médicale,
- argument,
- oncologie,
- radiobiologie,
- éthique
Veuillez télécharger l’article en PDF pour le lire.
Télécharger
Parties annexes
Remerciements / Acknowledgements
Nous tenons à remercier l’Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières qui nous a accordé un Fonds d’animation à la recherche (FAR) pour soutenir la réalisation de cette revue de littérature. Nous remercions également Eve-Lyne Bouchard DVM pour les références et les données concernant les doses de différentes espèces et de différents médicaments. Enfin, nous tenons à remercier chaleureusement l'équipe éditoriale qui a contribué à améliorer la qualité et la fluidité de notre anglais.
We would like to thank the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières for granting a Fonds d’animation à la recherche (FAR) to support the production of this literature review. We also thank Eve-Lyne Bouchard DVM for the references and data for dose of different species and drugs. Finally, we would like to warmly thank the editorial team who contributed to improve the quality and fluidity of our English.
Bibliography
- 1. Cohen B, Loew F. 2002. Chapter 1 - Laboratory animal medicine: historical perspectives. In: Fox JG, Anderson LC, Loew FM, Quimby FW, editors. Laboratory Animal Medicine, 2nd Ed. Academic Press; 2002. p. 1-17.
- 2. Bacon F. The New Atlantis. Auckland: The Floating Press; 2009.
- 3. Bernard C. Introduction à l’étude de la médecine expérimentale. J. B. Baillière et fils; 1985.
- 4. Maehle AH. Literary responses to animal experimentation in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Britain. Medical History.1990;34(1):27-51.
- 5. Merriam-Webster. Vivisection. Merriam-Webster.com dictionary.
- 6. Voltaire. Dictionnaire philosophique; 1764.
- 7. Maehle AH, Trohler U. Animal experimentation from antiquity to the end of the eighteenth century: Attitudes and arguments. Vivisection in Historical Perspective;1987:14-47.
- 8. Monamy V. Animal Experimentation: A Guide to the Issues, 2nd Ed.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2009.
- 9. Taylor K, Gordon N, Langley G, Higgins W. Estimates for worldwide laboratory animal use in 2005. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals. 2008;36(3):327-42.
- 10. Knight A. 127 Million non-human vertebrates used worldwide for scientific purposes in 2005. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals. 2008;36:494-96.
- 11. Diane LB. For the Prevention of Cruelty: The History and Legacy of Animal Rights Activism in the United States. Athens, Ohio: Swallow Press; 2006.
- 12. Harrington R. A tribute to PETA’s pals. The Washington Post. 12 Sept 1990.
- 13. PETA. About PETA. 2022
- 14. Singer P. Animal Liberation: A New Ethics for the Treatment of Animals. New York Review; 1975.
- 15. Regan T. The case for animal rights. Animal Rights and Human Obligations.1983.
- 16. Russell WMS, Burch RL. The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. Methuen; 1959.
- 17. Commission européenne. Respecter les animaux pour la science de demain. Directive 2010/63/EU sur la protection des animaux utilisés à des fins scientifiques. Journal officiel de l’Union européenne; 2019.
- 18. Herrmann K. Chapter 1 Refinement on the way towards replacement: Are we doing what we can? In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 3-64.
- 19. Conseil canadien de protection des animaux. Principes régissant la recherche sur les animaux Politiques du CCAC;1989.
- 20. Roberts I, Kwan I, Evans P, Haig S. Does animal experimentation inform human healthcare? Observations from a systematic review of international animal experiments on fluid resuscitation. BMJ. 2002;324(7335):474-76.
- 21. Perel P, Roberts I, Sena E, et al. Comparison of treatment effects between animal experiments and clinical trials: systematic review. BMJ;2007;334(7586):197.
- 22. Shanks N, Greek R, Greek J. Are animal models predictive for humans? Philosphy Ethics Humanity Medicine. 2009;4:2.
- 23. Croce P. Vivisection or Science? An Investigation into Testing Drugs and Safeguarding Health. Zed Books; 1999.
- 24. Vilmer JBJ. Éthique animale. vol. 1. Paris cedex 14: Presses Universitaires de France; 2008.
- 25. Fromantin I, Rollot F, Nicodeme M, Kriegel I. Les plaies tumorales en soins palliatifs. Soins. 2015;792:31-34.
- 26. de Vries RB, Wever KE, Avey MT, Stephens ML, Sena ES, Leenaars M. The usefulness of systematic reviews of animal experiments for the design of preclinical and clinical studies. ILAR Journal. 2014;55(3):427-37.
- 27. Berthod F, Symes J, Tremblay N, Medin JA, Auger FA. Spontaneous fibroblast-derived pericyte recruitment in a human tissue-engineered angiogenesis model in vitro. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 2012;227(5):2130-7.
- 28. Blais M, Lévesque P, Bellenfant S, Berthod F. Nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neurotrophin-3 and glial-derived neurotrophic factor enhance angiogenesis in a tissue-engineered in vitro model. Tissue Engineering Part A. 2013;19(15-16):1655-64.
- 29. Blais M, Mottier L, Germain M-A, Bellenfant S, Cadau S, Berthod F. Sensory neurons accelerate skin reepithelialization via substance P in an innervated tissue-engineered wound healing model. Tissue Engineering Part A. 2014;20(15-16):2180-8.
- 30. McCullough LB, Coverdale JH, Chervenak FA. Argument-based medical ethics: a formal tool for critically appraising the normative medical ethics literature. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2004;191(4):1097-1102.
- 31. McCullough LB, Coverdale JH, Chervenak FA. Constructing a systematic review for argument-based clinical Ethics literature: the example of concealed medications. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy.2007;32(1):65-76.
- 32. Beauchemin É, Côté LP, Drolet M-J, Williams-Jones B. Conceptualising ethical issues in the conduct of research: results from a critical and systematic literature review. Journal of Academic Ethics. 2021:1-24.
- 33. Côté L, Drolet M-J. Conceptualizing ethical issues of humanitarian work: results from a critical literature review. Canadian Journal of Bioethics/Revue canadienne de bioéthique. 2021;4(1):152-67.
- 34. Goulet M, Drolet M-J. Les enjeux éthiques en réadaptation. Un état des lieux de la conceptualisation de notions éthiques. Canadian Journal of Bioethics/Revue canadienne de bioéthique. 2018;1(3):9-21.
- 35. Strech D, Sofaer N. How to write a systematic review of reasons. Journal of Medical Ethics. 2012;38(2):121-26.
- 36. Sofaer N, Strech D. The need for systematic reviews of reasons. Bioethics. 2012;26(6):315-28.
- 37. Carvalho C, Alves D, Knight A, Vicente L. Is animal-based biomedical research being used in its original context? In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 376-90.
- 38. Pernot E, Hall J, Baatout S, Benotmane MA, et al. Ionizing radiation biomarkers for potential use in epidemiological studies. Mutation Research - Reviews in Mutation Research. 2012;751(2):258-86.
- 39. Tralau T, Riebeling C, Pirow R, et al. Wind of change challenges toxicological regulators. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2012;120(11):1489-94.
- 40. Nakamura M, Haarmann‐Stemmann T, Krutmann J, Morita A. Alternative test models for skin ageing research. Experimental Dermatology. 2018;27(5):495-500.
- 41. Watts G. Animal testing: is it worth it? BMJ. 2007;334(7586):182-84.
- 42. Cojocaru MD, von Gall P. Beyond plausibility checks: a case for moral doubt in review processes of animal experimentation. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 289-304.
- 43. Joffe AR. How do we justify biomedical animal research for human benefits? Part II. Health Ethics Today. 2015;23(1):6-8.
- 44. Knight A. Bias During the evaluation of animal studies? Animals MDPI. 2012;2(1):85-92.
- 45. Beauchamp TL. Opposing views on animal experimentation: do animals have rights? Ethics & Behavior. 1997;7(2):113-21.
- 46. Galgut E. Raising the bar in the justification of animal research. Journal of Animal Ethics. 2015;5(1):5-19.
- 47. DeGrazia D, Sebo J. Necessary conditions for morally responsible animal research. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. 2015;24(4):420-30.
- 48. Knight A. Critically evaluating animal research. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 321-40.
- 49. Gluck J, Bell J. Ethical issues in the use of animals in biomedical and psychopharmocological research. Psychopharmacology. 2003;171(1):6-12.
- 50. Ram R. Extrapolation of animal research data to humans: an analysis of the evidence. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 341-75.
- 51. Greek R, Kramer LA. How to evaluate the science of non-human animal use in biomedical research and testing: a proposed format for debate. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 65-87.
- 52. Archibald K, Coleman R, Drake T. Replacing animal tests to improve safety for humans. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 417-42.
- 53. Burden N, Sewell F, Chapman K. Testing chemical safety: what is needed to ensure the widespread application of non-animal approaches? PLoS Biology. 2015;13(5):e1002156.
- 54. Hansen LA, Kosberg KA. Ethics, efficacy, and decision-making in animal research. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 275-88.
- 55. Hall J, Jeggo PA, West C, et al. Ionizing radiation biomarkers in epidemiological studies – An update. Mutation Research - Reviews in Mutation Research. 2017;771:59-84.
- 56. Cho KW. The work of ICRP on the ethical foundations of the system of radiological protection. Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 2016;173(1-3):49-54.
- 57. Joffe AR. How do we justify biomedical animal research for human benefits? Part I. Health Ethics Today. 2015;23(1):3-6.
- 58. Pound, P. and Ritskes-Hoitinga, M. Is it possible to overcome issues of external validity in preclinical animal research? Why most animal models are bound to fail. Journal of Translational Medicine. 2018;16(1):304.
- 59. Akhtar A. The flaws and human harms of animal experimentation. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. 2015;24(4):407-19.
- 60. Johnson J, Smajdor A. Human Wrongs in animal research: a focus on moral injury and reification. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 305-17.
- 61. Bailey, J. Does the stress of laboratory life and experimentation on animals adversely affect research data? A critical review. Alternatives to Laboratory Animals. 2018;46(5):291-305.
- 62. Passantino A. Application of the 3Rs principles for animals used for experiments at the beginning of the 21st century. Annual Review of Biomedical Sciences. 2008;10:T27-T32.
- 63. Fricker M. Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2007.
- 64. Contopoulos-Ioannidis DG, Ntzani E, Ioannidis JP. Translation of highly promising basic science research into clinical applications. The American Journal of Medicine. 2003;114(6):477-84.
- 65. Hutchinson L, Kirk R. High drug attrition rates—where are we going wrong? Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology. 2011;8(4):189-90.
- 66. Sheehan M, Timlin C, Peach K, et al. Position statement on ethics, equipoise and research on charged particle radiation therapy. Journal of Medical Ethics. 2014;40(8):572-75.
- 67. Ferrari A. Contesting animal experiments through ethics and epistemology: in defense of a political critique of animal experimentation. In: Herrmann K, Jayne K, editors. Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change. Boston: Brill; 2019. p. 194-206.
- 68. Zarybnicka L, Sinkorova Z, Sinkora J, et al. Sensitivity of porcine peripheral blood leukocytes to gamma irradiation in vivo, in vitro and ex vivo. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2011;87(5):491-8.
- 69. Baiocco G, George I, Garcia-Argote S, et al. A 3D in vitro model of the human airway epithelium exposed to tritiated water: dosimetric estimate and cytotoxic effects. Radiation Research. 2021;195(3):265-74.
- 70. Morioka T, Blyth BJ, Imaoka T, et al. Establishing the Japan-Store house of animal radiobiology experiments (J-SHARE), a large-scale necropsy and histopathology archive providing international access to important radiobiology data. International Journal of Radiation Biology. 2019;95(10):1372-77.
- 71. Emami B, Lyman J, Brown A, et al. Tolerance of normal tissue to therapeutic irradiation. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics. 1991;21(1):109-122.
- 72. Donaldson S, Kymlicka W. Zoopolis: A Political Theory of Animal Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2011.
- 73. Vilmer JBJ. L’éthique animale. Paris : PUF, collection Que sais-je?; 2011.
- 74. Gibert M. Voir son steak comme un animal mort: véganisme et psychologie morale. Lux; 2015.
- 75. Giroux V. L’antispécisme. Paris : PUF, collection Que sais-je?; 2020.
- 76. Low P. Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness. Panskepp J, Reiss D, Edelman D, et al., editors. Francis Crick Memorial Conference on Consciousness in Human and non-Human Animals. Cambridge, UK; 2012.
- 77. Singer P, Cahen-Sergent J. Comment vivre avec les animaux? Les Empêcheurs de penser en rond; 2004.
- 78. Carel H, Kidd IJ. Epistemic injustice in healthcare: a philosophial analysis. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. 2014;17(4):529-40.
- 79. Lestel D, Bussolini J, Chrulew M. The phenomenology of animal life. Environmental Humanities. 2014;5(1):125-48.
- 80. Pan SD, Zhu LL, Chen M, Xia P, Zhou Q. Weight-based dosing in medication use: what should we know? Patient Preference and Adherence. 2016;10:549-60.
- 81. VIN. Veterinary Drug Handbook. 2017.
- 82. RxList. Mobic. 2020
- 83. Shell L, Gwaltney-Brant S. Acetaminophen toxicosis. VIN. 2004.
- 84. Khan SA. Analgesics (Toxicity). Merck Veterinary Manual. Aug 2014.
- 85. Vargesson N. Thalidomide‐induced teratogenesis: History and mechanisms. Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews. 2015;105(2):140-56.
- 86. Currie GL, Angel-Scott HN, Colvin L, et al. Animal models of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy: A machine-assisted systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Biology. 2019;17(5):e3000243.
- 87. Douglas AE. Simple animal models for microbiome research. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2019;17:764-75.
- 88. Swearengen JR. Choosing the right animal model for infectious disease research. Animal Models and Experimental Medicine. 2018;1(2):100-8.
- 89. Herrmann K, Pistollato F, Stephens ML. Beyond the 3Rs: Expanding the use of human-relevant replacement methods in biomedical research. ALTEX. 2019;36(3):343-52.
- 90. Veening-Griffioen DH, Ferreira GS, Boon WPC, et al. Tradition, not science, is the basis of animal model selection in translational and applied research. ALTEX. 2021;38(1):49-62.