Résumés
Abstract
The gender-job satisfaction paradox, i.e., women reporting higher levels of job satisfaction while facing worse working conditions, has been hotly debated by scholars. This article studies the moderating role of national gender ideology in this paradox. In particular, the focus on Anglo-Saxon countries as well as the lack of attention towards the role of national gender ideology have received criticism. National gender ideology moderates the relationship between gender and job satisfaction: in more egalitarian countries, the gender gap of job satisfaction (to the detriment of women) is more important than in countries with more traditional gender ideologies. These results allow us to discuss expectation theory and the transitory nature of the gender-job satisfaction paradox.
Keywords:
- gender,
- job satisfaction,
- gender ideology,
- expectation theory
Résumé
Les liens entre genre et satisfaction au travail sont très débattus dans la littérature académique. En particulier, l’accent mis sur les pays anglo-saxons et le manque d’attention portée aux stéréotypes de genre au niveau national ont été critiqués. Cet article étudie le rôle modérateur des stéréotypes de genre dans différents pays européens. Les stéréotypes de genre modèrent la relation entre le genre et la satisfaction au travail : dans les pays plus égalitaires, l’écart de satisfaction au travail entre les sexes (au détriment des femmes) est plus important que dans les pays moins égalitaires. Ces résultats nous permettent de discuter la théorie des attentes et la nature transitoire du paradoxe du genre et de la satisfaction au travail.
Mots-clés :
- genre,
- satisfaction au travail,
- stéréotypes de genre,
- théorie des attentes
Resumen
Los vínculos entre el género y la satisfacción laboral son muy debatidos en la literatura académica. En particular, se ha criticado la concentración en los países anglosajones y la escasa atención prestada a los estereotipos de género a escala nacional. Este artículo examina el papel moderador de los estereotipos de género en varios países europeos. Los estereotipos de género moderan la relación entre género y satisfacción laboral: en los países más igualitarios, la diferencia de género en la satisfacción laboral (en detrimento de las mujeres) es mayor que en los países menos igualitarios. Estos resultados nos permiten discutir la teoría de las expectativas y el carácter transitorio de la paradoja del género y la satisfacción laboral.
Palabras clave:
- género,
- satisfacción laboral,
- estereotipos de género,
- teoría de las expectativas
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Acker, J. (1989). Doing Comparable Worth: Gender, Class, and Pay Equity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
- Acker, J. (2009). From glass ceiling to inequality regimes. Sociologie Du Travail, 51(2), 199‑217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soctra.2009.03.004
- Alvesson, M. (1987). Organizations, Culture, and Ideology. International Studies of Management & Organization, 17(3), 4‑18.
- Andrade, M. S., Westover, J. H., & Peterson, J. (2019). Job Satisfaction and Gender. Journal of Business Diversity, 19(3), 22‑40.
- Annesley, C., Engeli, I., & Gains, F. (2015). The profile of gender equality issue attention in Western Europe. European Journal of Political Research, 54(3), 525‑542.
- Ashwin, S., & Isupova, O. (2018). Anatomy of a Stalled Revolution: Processes of Reproduction and Change in Russian Women’s Gender Ideologies. Gender & Society, 32(4), 441‑468. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243218776309
- Bagger, J., & Li, A. (2012). Being important matters: The impact of work and family centralities on the family-to-work conflict–satisfaction relationship. Human Relations, 65(4), 473‑500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726711430557
- Bagger, J., Li, A., & Gutek, B. A. (2008). How much do you value your family and does it matter? The joint effects of family identity salience, family-interference-with-work, and gender. Human Relations, 61(2), 187‑211. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726707087784
- Beblo, M., & Görges, L. (2018). On the nature of nurture. The malleability of gender differences in work preferences. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 151, 19‑41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2018.05.002
- Bender, A.-F., & Pigeyre, F. (2016). Job evaluation and gender pay equity: A French example. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 35(4), 267‑279. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-07-2015-0062
- Bender, K. A., Donohue, S. M., & Heywood, J. S. (2005). Job satisfaction and gender segregation. Oxford Economic Papers, 57(3), 479‑496. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpi015
- Bender, K. A., & Heywood, J. S. (2006). Job Satisfaction of the Highly Educated: The Role of Gender, Academic Tenure, and Earnings. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 53(2), 253‑279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9485.2006.00379.x
- Bergmann, N., Scheele, A., & Sorger, C. (2019). Variations of the same? A sectoral analysis of the gender pay gap in Germany and Austria. Gender, Work & Organization, 26(5), 668‑687. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12299
- Bliese, P. D. (1998). Group size, ICC values, and group-level correlations: A simulation. Organizational Research Methods, 1(4), 355‑373. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442819814001
- Blossfeld, H.-P., Buchholz, S., Dämmrich, J., Kilpi-Jakonen, E., Kosyakova, Y., Skopek, J., … Vono de Vilhena, D. (2015). Gender Differences at Labor Market Entry: The Effect of Changing Educational Pathways and Institutional Structures. In H.-P. Blossfeld, J. Skopek, M. Triventi, & S. Buchholz, Gender, Education and Employment (p. 3‑34). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781784715038.00008
- Brunetto, Y., Teo, S. T. T., Shacklock, K., & Farr-Wharton, R. (2012). Emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, well-being and engagement: Explaining organisational commitment and turnover intentions in policing. Human Resource Management Journal, 22(4), 428‑441. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2012.00198.x
- Buonocore, F., & Russo, M. (2013). Reducing the effects of work-family conflict on job satisfaction: The kind of commitment matters. Human Resource Management Journal, 23(1), 91‑108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2011.00187.x
- Caroli, E., & Godard, M. (2016). Does job insecurity deteriorate health? Health Economics, 25(2), 131‑147. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3122
- Christen, M., Iyer, G., & Soberman, D. (2006). Job Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Effort: A Reexamination Using Agency Theory. Journal of Marketing, 70(1), 137‑150. JSTOR. Consulté à l’adresse JSTOR.
- Clark, A. A. (1997). Job satisfaction and gender: Why are women so happy at work? Labour Economics, 4(4), 341‑372. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0927-5371(97)00010-9
- Clark, A. A., & Oswald, A. J. (1996). Satisfaction and comparison income. Journal of Public Economics, 61(3), 359‑381. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2727(95)01564-7
- Clark, A. A., Oswald, A., & Warr, P. (1996). Is job satisfaction U-shaped in age? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69(1), 57‑81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1996.tb00600.x
- Coron, C. (2018). Quels effets des mesures d’égalité professionnelle, en fonction de leur difficulté d’appropriation? Une étude de cas. Revue de gestion des ressources humaines, 4(110), 41‑53.
- Damaske, S. (2011). A “Major Career Woman”?: How Women Develop Early Expectations about Work. Gender & Society, 25(4), 409‑430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243211412050
- Davis, S. N., & Greenstein, T. N. (2009). Gender Ideology: Components, Predictors, and Consequences. Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 87‑105. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115920
- Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as Dynamic Constructs: Women and Men of the Past, Present, and Future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(10), 1171‑1188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200262001
- Dikkers, J., van Engen, M., & Vinkenburg, C. (2010). Flexible work: Ambitious parents’ recipe for career success in The Netherlands. Career Development International, 15(6), 562‑582. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431011084411
- Dolan, S. L., Bejarano, A., & Tzafrir, S. (2011). Exploring the moderating effect of gender in the relationship between individuals’ aspirations and career success among engineers in Peru. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(15), 3146‑3167. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.560883
- Drydakis, N. (2017). Trans employees, transitioning, and job satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 98, 1‑16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.09.003
- Eibl, B., Lang, F. R., & Niessen, C. (2020). Employee voice at work: The role of employees’ gender, self-efficacy beliefs, and leadership. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 29(4), 570‑585. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2020.1733979
- Elm, D. R., Kennedy, E. J., & Lawton, L. (2001). Determinants of Moral Reasoning: Sex Role Orientation, Gender, and Academic Factors. Business & Society, 40(3), 241‑265. https://doi.org/10.1177/000765030104000302
- Eskildsen, J. K., Kristensen, K., & Westlund, A. H. (2004). Work motivation and job satisfaction in the Nordic countries. Employee Relations, 26(2), 122‑136. https://doi.org/10.1108/01425450410511043
- Fenton-O’Creevy, M. (1995). Moderators of Differences In Job Satisfaction Between Full-Time and Part-Time Female Employees: A Research Note. Human Resource Management Journal, 5(5), 75‑81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.1995.tb00391.x
- Ficapal-Cusí, P., Díaz-Chao, A., Sainz-Ibáñez, M., & Torrent-Sellens, J. (2018). Gender inequalities in job quality during the recession. Employee Relations, 40(1), 2‑22. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-07-2016-0139
- Flickinger, M., Allscher, M., & Fiedler, M. (2016). The mediating role of leader–member exchange: A study of job satisfaction and turnover intentions in temporary work. Human Resource Management Journal, 26(1), 46‑62. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12091
- García, G. A., Gonzales-Miranda, D. R., Gallo, O., & Roman-Calderon, J. P. (2019). Employee involvement and job satisfaction: A tale of the millennial generation. Employee Relations, 41(3), 374‑388. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-04-2018-0100
- Garner, P., & Laroche, P. (2016). Les effets du sentiment d’efficacité personnelle sur la relation entre l’équilibre travail-famille et la satisfaction au travail. Revue de gestion des ressources humaines, 2(100), 41‑60.
- Gaunt, R., & Benjamin, O. (2007). Job insecurity, stress and gender: The moderating role of gender ideology. Community, Work & Family, 10(3), 341‑355. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668800701456336
- Goldstein, H., Browne, W., & Rasbash, J. (2002). Partitioning Variation in Multilevel Models. Understanding Statistics: Statistical Issues in Psychology, Education, and the Social Sciences, 1(4), 223‑231. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328031US0104_02
- Gottfried, H. (2009). Japan: The Reproductive Bargain and the Making of Precarious. In L. F. Vosko, M. MacDonald, & I. Campbell (Éds.), Gender and the contours of precarious employment (p. 90‑105). Routledge.
- Grönlund, A., & Öun, I. (2018). The gender-job satisfaction paradox and the dual-earner society: Are women (still) making work-family trade-offs? Work, 59(4), 535‑545. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-182708
- Grunow, D., Begall, K., & Buchler, S. (2018). Gender Ideologies in Europe: A Multidimensional Framework. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(1), 42‑60. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12453
- Hakim, C. (2006). Women, careers, and work-life preferences. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 34(3), 279‑294. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069880600769118
- Hauret, L., & Williams, D. R. (2017). Cross-National Analysis of Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 56(2), 203‑235. https://doi.org/10.1111/irel.12171
- Hodson, R. (1989). Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction. The Sociological Quarterly, 30(3), 385‑399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1989.tb01527.x
- Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 1‑26. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014
- Huang, Q., & Gamble, J. (2015). Social expectations, gender and job satisfaction: Front-line employees in China’s retail sector. Human Resource Management Journal, 25(3), 331‑347. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12066
- Hünefeld, L., Gerstenberg, S., & Hüffmeier, J. (2020). Job satisfaction and mental health of temporary agency workers in Europe: A systematic review and research agenda. Work & Stress, 34(1), 82‑110. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2019.1567619
- Jijena Michel, R. D., & Jijena Michel, C. E. (2015). Work Schedule Flexibility, Work-Family Enrichment and Job Satisfaction. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 25(1), 78‑90.
- Jones, M. K., Jones, R. J., Latreille, P. L., & Sloane, P. J. (2009). Training, Job Satisfaction, and Workplace Performance in Britain: Evidence from WERS 2004. Labour, 23(s1), 139‑175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9914.2008.00434.x
- Kaiser, L. C. (2005). Gender-job satisfaction differences across Europe: An indicator for labor market modernization (IZA Discussion paper series No 1876; p. 1‑28). Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).
- Kosteas, V. D. (2013). Gender Role Attitudes, Labor Supply, and Human Capital Formation. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 52(4), 915‑940. https://doi.org/10.1111/irel.12040
- Kroska, A. (2000). Conceptualizing and measuring gender ideology as an identity. Gender & Society, 14(3), 368‑394. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124300014003002
- Lange, T. (2008). Communist Legacies, Gender and the Impact on Job Satisfaction in Central and Eastern Europe. European Journal of Industrial Relations, 14(3), 327‑346. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959680108094138
- Lange, T. (2015). Social capital and job satisfaction: The case of Europe in times of economic crisis. European Journal of Industrial Relations, 21(3), 275‑290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959680114542907
- Lee, K. S. (2006). Gender Beliefs and the Meaning of Work Among Okinawan Women. Gender & Society, 20(3), 382‑401. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206286727
- Lee, R., & Wilbur, E. R. (1985). Age, Education, Job Tenure, Salary, Job Characteristics, and Job Satisfaction: A Multivariate Analysis. Human Relations, 38(8), 781‑791. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872678503800806
- Leung, K., & Morris, M. W. (2015). Values, schemas, and norms in the culture-behavior nexus: A situated dynamics framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(9), 1028‑1050. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2014.66
- Linz, S. J., & Semykina, A. (2012). What Makes Workers Happy? Anticipated Rewards and Job Satisfaction. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 51(4), 811‑844. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232X.2012.00702.x
- Locke, E. A. (1969). What is Job Satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4, 309‑336.
- Muñoz de Bustillo, R., & de Pedraza, P. (2010). Determinants of job insecurity in five European countries. European Journal of Industrial Relations, 16(1), 5‑20. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959680109355306
- Ng, E. S., & Sears, G. J. (2017). The glass ceiling in context: The influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management: The glass ceiling in context. Human Resource Management Journal, 27(1), 133‑151. https://doi.org/10.1111/1748-8583.12135
- Orloff, A. S. (1993). Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States. American Sociological Review, 58(3), 303. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095903
- Otterbach, S., Sousa-Poza, A., & Zhang, X. (2021). Gender differences in perceived workplace harassment and gender egalitarianism: A comparative cross-national analysis. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility, 30(3), 392‑411. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12338
- Pedulla, D. S., & Thébaud, S. (2015). Can We Finish the Revolution? Gender, Work-Family Ideals, and Institutional Constraint. American Sociological Review, 80(1), 116‑139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414564008
- Perugini, C., & Vladisavljević, M. (2019). Gender inequality and the gender-job satisfaction paradox in Europe. Labour Economics, 60, 129‑147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.06.006
- Powell, G. N., & Greenhaus, J. H. (2010). Sex, Gender, and Decisions at the Family → Work Interface. Journal of Management, 36(4), 1011‑1039. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206309350774
- Pujol-Cols, L. J., & Dabos, G. E. (2018). Satisfacción laboral: Una revisión de la literatura acerca de sus principales determinantes. Journal of Management and Economics for Iberoamerica, 34(146), 3‑18. https://doi.org/10.18046/j.estger.2018.146.2809
- Renkema, M., Meijerink, J., & Bondarouk, T. (2016). Advancing multilevel thinking and methods in HRM research. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 3(2), 204‑218. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-03-2016-0027
- Rose, M. (2003). Good Deal, Bad Deal? Job Satisfaction in Occupations. Work, Employment and Society, 17(3), 503‑530. https://doi.org/10.1177/09500170030173006
- Sawang, S. (2010). Moderation or Mediation? An Examination of the Role Perceived Managerial Support has on Job satisfaction and Psychological Strain. Current Psychology, 29(3), 247‑256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-010-9083-9
- Shieh, G. (2016). Choosing the best index for the average score intraclass correlation coefficient. Behavior Research Methods, 48(3), 994‑1003. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0623-y
- Smith, M. (2009). Gender, Pay and Work Satisfaction at a UK University. Gender, Work & Organization, 16(5), 621‑641. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2008.00403.x
- Smyth, E., & Steinmetz, S. (2008). Field of Study and Gender Segregation in European Labour Markets. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 49(4‑5), 257‑281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020715208093077
- Sousa-Poza, A., & Sousa-Poza, A. A. (2000). Taking Another Look at the Gender/Job-Satisfaction Paradox. Kyklos, 53(2), 135‑152. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6435.00114
- Stevenson, B., & Wolfers, J. (2009). The paradox of declining female happiness. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 1(2), 190‑225.
- Stojmenovska, D. (2019). Management gender composition and the gender pay gap: Evidence from British panel data. Gender, Work & Organization, 26(5), 738‑764. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12264
- Sweet, S., Sarkisian, N., Matz-Costa, C., & Pitt-Catsouphes, M. (2016). Are women less career centric than men? Structure, culture, and identity investments. Community, Work & Family, 19(4), 481‑500. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2015.1078287
- Tabvuma, V., Georgellis, Y., & Lange, T. (2015). Orientation Training and Job Satisfaction: A Sector and Gender Analysis. Human Resource Management, 54(2), 303‑321. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21650
- Tlaiss, H. A., & Mendelson, M. B. (2014). Predicting women’s job satisfaction with personal demographics: Evidence from a Middle Eastern country. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(3), 434‑458. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.792859
- Top, M., Akdere, M., & Tarcan, M. (2015). Examining transformational leadership, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational trust in Turkish hospitals: Public servants versus private sector employees. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(9), 1259‑1282. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2014.939987
- Valet, P. (2018). Social Structure and the Paradox of the Contented Female Worker: How Occupational Gender Segregation Biases Justice Perceptions of Wages. Work and Occupations, 45(2), 168‑193.
- Vespa, J. (2009). Gender Ideology Construction: A Life Course and Intersectional Approach. Gender & Society, 23(3), 363‑387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243209337507
- Webber, K. L., & Rogers, S. M. (2018). Gender Differences in Faculty Member Job Satisfaction: Equity Forestalled? Research in Higher Education, 59(8), 1105‑1132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9494-2
- Wilkin, C. L. (2013). I can’t get no job satisfaction: Meta-analysis comparing permanent and contingent workers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(1), 47‑64. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1790
- Woehr, D. J., Loignon, A. C., Schmidt, P. B., Loughry, M. L., & Ohland, M. W. (2015). Justifying Aggregation With Consensus-Based Constructs: A Review and Examination of Cutoff Values for Common Aggregation Indices. Organizational Research Methods, 18(4), 704‑737. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428115582090
- Young, M. C. (2010). Gender Differences in Precarious Work Settings. Relations Industrielles, 65(1), 74‑97. https://doi.org/10.7202/039528ar
- Zhao, K., Zhang, M., & Foley, S. (2019). Testing two mechanisms linking work-to-family conflict to individual consequences: Do gender and gender role orientation make a difference? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 30(6), 988‑1009. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1282534
- Zou, M. (2015). Gender, work orientations and job satisfaction. Work, Employment and Society, 29(1), 3‑22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017014559267
10.7202/039528ar