Abstracts
Abstract
This paper looks at self-censorship and censorship in Bushido: The Soul of Japan (1900) by Nitobe, Inazo (1862-1933) as well as in four different translations of the book. In Bushido, probably the best known of Nitobe’s books, the renowned Japanese writer and diplomat tried to act as an inter-cultural mediator between East and West and export the concepts and values of Bushido (the path of the samurai). Nitobe was descended from one of the great samurai families, but he converted to Christianity, married an American Quaker from Philadelphia and studied widely in the US and in Europe. Bushido was a valiant attempt to “translate” the ethical code of the samurais for the West, but perhaps in so doing Nitobe idealized the samurai caste by domesticating their values and teaching in order to bring them closer to Christian values and teaching. The main purpose of his book was to make Japanese culture acceptable to and valued by the West and in particular Philadelphia at the beginning of the 20th century, but he also had to assure the approval of the imperial authorities.
The original text was written in English, which was not Nitobe’s mother tongue, and it can be studied as a self-translation that involves self-censorship. Writing in a foreign language obliges one to “filter” one’s own emotions and modes of expression. To a certain extent, it also limits one’s capacity for self-expression. Alternatively, it allows the writer to express more empathy for the “other culture.” Furthermore, one is much more conscious of what one wants to say, or what one wishes to avoid saying, in order to make the work more acceptable for intended readers.
The four translations are the Spanish translation by Gonzalo Jiménez de la Espada (1909), the French translation by Charles Jacob (1927), the Japanese translation by Yanaihara Tadao (1938) and the Spanish translation by General José Millán-Astray (1941). A descriptive, diachronic study of the translation of selected cultural references shows the four translations to be good examples of the way translations vary over time. They also illustrate the relationship between context, pretext and text (Widowson, 2004) and the visibility or invisibility of the translator (Venuti, 1995). We have also found it useful to draw on skopos theory, as well as some aspects of the Manipulation School, in particular ideology, censorship and the emphasis on translation between distant languages and cultures.
The analysis of the four translations shows that censorship of cultural references is evident during periods of conflict (such as the Japanese translation of 1938 and the Spanish translation of 1941). We hope to show that the context/pretext of the translator led to such manipulative or censorial translation decisions that Nitobe’s skopos was lost in at least one of the translations.
Keywords:
- bushidō,
- author/translator,
- ideology,
- Orientalism,
- Nihonjinron
Résumé
Nous analysons dans cet article l’autocensure et la censure présentes dans l’oeuvre d’Inazo Nitobe, Bushido : The Soul of Japan, ainsi que dans quatre de ses traductions. Dans ce qui est probablement sa publication la plus connue à l’échelle internationale, le célèbre essayiste et diplomate japonais Inazo Nitobe (1862-1933) joue le rôle de médiateur interculturel entre l’Orient et l’Occident en exportant les valeurs et les concepts du bushidō, la voie du samouraï. Nitobe appartenait à une grande famille de samouraïs, mais se convertit au christianisme, épousa une jeune femme quaker de Philadelphie et acquit la plus grande partie de sa formation universitaire aux États-Unis et en Europe. Dans Bushido, il tente courageusement de traduire pour l’Occident le code éthique des samouraïs, mais sa volonté d’établir des liens étroits avec les valeurs chrétiennes le conduit à idéaliser la caste des samouraïs et à christianiser, en quelque sorte, les valeurs et les enseignements de celle-ci. À travers son livre, Nitobe souhaitait faire connaître la valeur de la culture japonaise afin qu’elle soit acceptée par les Occidentaux, notamment les habitants de Philadelphie du début du XXe siècle.
Le texte original est en langue anglaise, qui n’est pas la langue maternelle de l’auteur et peut donc être étudié en tant qu’autotraduction, ce qui implique une certaine autocensure. En effet, lorsqu’il écrit dans une langue étrangère, un auteur est en quelque sorte amené à filtrer ses émotions et son mode d’expression. Il est, certes, limité dans sa capacité d’expression, mais, en même temps, il peut faire preuve d’une plus grande empathie pour l’autre culture. En outre, il est plus conscient de ce qu’il veut dire et ne pas dire pour que son oeuvre soit bien reçue par ses lecteurs potentiels.
Les quatre traductions que nous analysons sont, dans un ordre chronologique, celles de Gonzalo Jiménez de la Espada (1909, en espagnol), de Charles Jacob (1927, en français), de Yanaihara Tadao (1938, en japonais) et du général franquiste José Millán-Astray (1941, en espagnol). Une étude descriptive diachronique de la traduction des références culturelles montre que ces quatre versions illustrent d’une manière exemplaire comment la manière de traduire et le lien qui existe entre le contexte, l’avant-texte et le texte (Widowson, 2004) changent selon l’époque, de même que la visibilité et l’invisibilité du traducteur (Venuti, 1995). Nous utilisons pour notre travail la théorie du skopos, certains aspects de la théorie du polysystème, notamment ceux qui concernent l’idéologie et la censure, ainsi que l’étude de la traduction entre langues et cultures éloignées.
Notre analyse des quatre traductions nous permet de montrer que la manipulation – ou l’autocensure – des références culturelles du texte original est particulièrement évidente dans les périodes de conflit, comme l’illustrent la traduction japonaise de 1938 et la traduction espagnole de 1941. Notre objectif est finalement de démontrer comment le contexte/l’avant-texte peuvent conduire le traducteur à manipuler et censurer le texte original, si bien que le skopos de Nitobe est complètement occulté dans les traductions.
Mots-clés :
- bushidō,
- auteur/traducteur,
- idéologie,
- Orientalisme,
- Nihonjinron
Appendices
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