Abstracts
Résumé
Dans le champ des études sociales de la science, les régimes de régulation du risque appréhendés selon une approche technocratique sont critiqués pour leur attention insuffisante au « public », point de vue épistémologique socialement situé qui pourtant est davantage en mesure d’articuler les préoccupations du monde réel aux implications (collectives) du risque. Il semble qu’on ait répondu à cette critique dans plusieurs pays en modernisant les réglementations et en déployant des efforts stratégiques pour susciter l’ouverture, permettre un examen approfondi et encourager un large éventail de citoyens à s’impliquer dans le processus décisionnel. Tout en reconnaissant que le régime de preuves dans la réglementation du risque aurait grandement avantage à prendre en compte une plus grande diversité de types de savoir (notamment les connaissances qui ont été historiquement négligées), nous soutenons que ce ne sont pas seulement les savoirs publics « profanes », mais aussi les savoirs scientifiques « experts » qui tendent à être négligés dans les régimes modernes de réglementation du risque. Le présent article part d’un cas spécifique — la modernisation de la régulation des produits de santé canadiens — pour rendre compte de l’évolution de la nature et du rôle de l’évidence médicale. En nous appuyant sur une recherche ethnographique et sur la littérature consacrée (science du risque et de la régulation, travaux autour des frontières et anthropologie symétrique), nous proposons une approche symétrique de la réglementation du risque basée sur la production d’un régime de preuves.
Mots-clés :
- risque,
- régulation,
- politique de modernisation,
- anthropologie symétrique
Abstract
Within the social studies of science, risk regulation regimes dominated by a technocratic approach are critiqued for neglecting public, socially situated epistemological standpoints, which, it is argued, are more capable of articulating real world concerns and implications of risk. This critique appears to have been tackled through regulatory modernization in several nations, where strategic efforts are being advanced to open up, enable scrutiny and solicit input into decision-making from a broad range of citizens. While we agree that the evidence for risk regulation could benefit from accommodating more ways of knowing (particularly types of knowledge that have a history of being neglected), we argue that it is not only ‘lay’ public knowledges, but also ‘expert’ scientific ones which become neglected in modern risk regulation regimes. In this paper, we draw upon a specific case — modernization in the Canadian health products regulator — to examine the evolving role and nature of evidence. We draw from our own ethnographic research and the relevant literature (risk and regulatory science, boundary work, and symmetrical anthropology) to suggest a symmetrical approach to evidence-based risk regulation.
Keywords:
- risk,
- regulation,
- modernization policy,
- symmetrical anthropology
Resumen
En el campo de los estudios sociales de las ciencias, los regímenes de regulación del riesgo identificados según un enfoque tecnocrático, son criticados por su insuficiente atención a lo “público”, punto de vista epistemológico socialmente situado que, no obstante, está más en condiciones de articular las preocupaciones del mundo real a las implicaciones (colectivas) del riesgo. Pareciera que en varios países se hubiese respondido a esta crítica modernizando las reglamentaciones y realizando esfuerzos estratégicos para suscitar la apertura, permitir un examen profundo y promover la participación de un amplio sector de ciudadanos en el proceso decisional. Reconociendo que el régimen de pruebas en la reglamentación del riesgo tendría considerables ventajas al considerar una mayor diversidad de tipos de saberes (principalmente los conocimientos que históricamente han sido descuidados), nosotros sostenemos que en los regímenes modernos de reglamentación del riesgo no son solamente descuidados los saberes públicos “profanos”, sino además los saberes científicos “expertos”. El presente artículo parte de un caso específico —la modernización de la regulación de los productos de salud canadienses— para dar cuenta de la evolución de la naturaleza y del papel de la evidencia médica. Apoyándonos en una investigación etnográfica y en la literatura consagrada (ciencias del riesgo y de la regulación, trabajos alrededor de las fronteras y antropología simétrica), proponemos un enfoque simétrico de la reglamentación del riesgo basado en la producción de un régimen de pruebas.
Palabras clave:
- riesgo,
- regulación,
- política de modernización,
- antropología simétrica
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Abelson, J., P.-G. Forest, J. Eyles, P. Smith, E. Martin et F.-P. Gauvin (2003), Social Science & Medicine, vol. 57, no 2, p. 239.
- Abelson, J., F.-P. Gauvin, M. P. MacKinnon et J. Watling (2004), Transparency, Trust and Citizen Engagement : What Canadians Are Saying about Accountability, (Ottawa : Canadian Policy Research Network), page consultée à : http://www.cprn.com/doc.cfm?doc=1141&l=en.
- Abraham, J. et H. L. Smith (2003), Regulation of the Pharmaceutical Industry, New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
- Abraham, J. et C. Davis (2009), « Drug Evaluation and the Permissive Principle : Continuities and Contradictions between Standards and Practices in Antidepressant Regulation », Social Studies of Science, vol. 39, no 4, p. 569-598.
- Abramson, J. et B. Starfield (2005), « The Effect of Conflict of Interest on Biomedical Research and Clinical Practice Guidelines : Can We Trust the Evidence in Evidence-Based Medicine ? », Journal of the American Board of Family Practice, vol. 18, no 5, p. 414-418.
- Andersen, I. E. et B. Jaeger (1999), « Scenario Workshops and Consensus Conferences : Towards More Democratic Decision-Making », Science and Public Policy, vol. 26, no 5, p. 331-340.
- Angell, M. (2004), The Truth about the Drug Companies : How They Deceive Us and What To Do About It, New York, Random House.
- Batt, S. (2009), « Who Pays the Piper ? : Patients’ Groups and Industry Funding », in A. Ford et D. Saibil (dir.), The Push to Prescribe : Women and Canadian Drug Policy, Toronto, Canadian Scholars Press.
- Beck, U. (1992), Risk Society :Towards a New Modernity, Londres, Sage.
- Brannen, J. (2004), « Working Qualitatively and Quantitatively », in C. Seale, G. Gobo, J.Gubrium, et D. Silverman (dir.), Qualitative Research Practice, Londres, Sage, p. 312-326.
- Canadian Scientists against the Politicization of Science (2008), « An Open Letter : The Politicization of Science in Canada ». Voir : http://www.media3.marketwire.com/docs/openletter.pdf (page consultée le 10 janvier 2010.)
- Carpenter, D., E. J. Zucker et J. Avorn (2008), « Drug-Review Deadlines and Safety Problems », New England Journal of Medicine, no 358, p. 1358-1361.
- Collins, H. M. et R. Evans (2002), « The Third Wave of Science Studies : Studies of Expertise and Experience », Social Studies of Science, vol. 32, no 2, p. 235-296.
- Collins, H. M. et R. Evans (2003), « King Canute Meets the Beach Boys : Responses to the Third Wave », Social Studies of Science, vol. 33, no 3, p. 435-452.
- Collins, H. M. et R. Evans (2007), Rethinking Expertise, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
- Doern, G. B. et T. Reed (2000), « Canada’s Changing Science-Based Policy and Regulatory Regime : Issues and Framework », in G. B. Doern et T. Reed (dir.), Risky Business : Canada’s Changing Science-based Policy and Regulatory Regime, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, p. 3-30.
- Epstein, S. (1996), Impure Science : AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge, Berkeley, University of California Press.
- Fischer, F. (1990), Technocracy and the Politics of Expertise, Londres, Sage.
- Giddens, A. (1990), The Consequences of Modernity, Stanford, Stanford University Press.
- Gieryn, T. F. (1983), « Boundary-work and the Demarcation of Science from Non-science : Strains and Interests in Professional Ideologies of Scientists », American Sociological Review, vol. 48, no 6, p. 781-795.
- Graham, J., A. B. Mitnitski , A. J. Mogilner, D. Gauvreau, et K. Rockwood (1996), « Symptoms and Signs in Dementia : Synergy and Antagonism », Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, no 7, p. 331-335.
- Graham, J. (2005), « Smart Regulation : Will the Government’s Strategy Work ? », Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol. 173, no 12, p. 1469-1970.
- Graham, J. (2006), « Diagnosing Dementia : Epidemiological and Clinical Data as Cultural Text », inThinking about Dementia, Culture, Loss and the Anthropology of Senility, A. Leibing et L. Cohen (dir.), New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, p. 80-105.
- Graham, J. et K. Ritchie (2006), « Mild Cognitive Impairment : Ethical Considerations for Nonsociological Flexibility in Human Kinds », Philosophy, Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 13, no 2, p. 31- 43.
- Graham, J. E. (2008), « Facilitating Regulation : The Dance of Statistical Significance and Clinical Meaningfulness in Standardizing Technologies for Dementia », Biosocieties, 3, p. 241-263.
- Gunningham, N., Grabosky, P. et D. Sinclair (1998), Smart Regulation : Designing Environmental Policy, Oxford, Clarendon.
- Guston, D. H. (1999), « Stabilizing the Boundary Between US Politics and Science : The Role of the Office of Technology Transfer as a Boundary Organization », Social Studies of Science, vol. 29, no 1, p. 87-111.
- Guston, D. H. (2001), « Boundary Organizations in Environmental Policy and Science : An Introduction », Science, Technology, and Human Values, vol. 26, no 4, p. 399-408.
- Haag, D. et M. Kaupenjohann (2001), « Parameters, Prediction, Post-normal Science and the Precautionary Principle — A Roadmap for Modelling for Decision-making », Ecological Modelling vol. 144, no 1, p. 45-60.
- Habermas, J. (1976), Legitimation Crisis, Londres, Heinemann Educational.
- Hamstra, A. (1995), « The Role of the Public in Instruments of Constructive Technology Assessment », in S. Joss et J. Durant (dir.), Public Participation in Science :The Role of Consensus Conferences in Europe, Londres, Science Museum, p. 53-66
- Haraway, D. (2001), Simians, Cyborgs, and Women : The Reinvention of Nature, New York, Routledge, p. 183-202
- Harding, S. (1991), Whose Science ? Whose Knowledge ? Thinking from Women’s Lives, Milton Keynes, Open University Press.
- Harding, S. (1993), « Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology : What is Strong Objectivity ? », in L. Alcoff et E. Potter (dir.), Feminist Epistemologies, Londres, Routledge, p. 49-82.
- Health Canada (2003), Natural Health Products Regulations, page consultée à http://www.canadagazette.gc.ca/partII/2003/20030618/html/sor196-e.html.
- Health Canada (2004), Serving Canadians — Now and Into the Future, page consultée à http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/pubs/hpfb-dgpsa/strat_plan_e.html.
- Health Canada (2005a), Therapeutics Access Strategy. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hcs-sss/pharma/tas-sapt/index_e.html.
- Health Canada (2005b), Smart Regulation. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/legislation/smart-intel/index_e.html.
- Health Canada (2005c), HPFB Public Involvement Framework. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/pubs/cons-pub/piframework-cadrepp_e.html.
- Health Canada (2006a), Blueprint for Renewal : Transforming Canada’s Approach to Regulating Health Products and Food. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/public-consult/consultations/col/blue-bleu/index_e.html.
- Health Canada (2006b), Issuance of the Final Consumer Advertising Guidelines for Marketed Health Products (for Nonprescription Drugs Including Natural Health Products). Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/advert-publicit/pol/guide-ldir_consom_consum_e.html.
- Health Canada (2007a), Health Products and Food Branch. Review of Regulated Products : Policy on Public Input. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/branch-dirgen/hpfb-dgpsa/public-rev-exam/rev_reg_prod-exa_9_e.html.
- Health Canada (2007b), Strategic Plan 2007-2012. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/pubs/hpfb-dgpsa/strat-plan-2007-2012_e.html.
- Health Canada (2007c), Health Products and Food Branch, Guidance on Advisory Bodies. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/branch-dirgen/hpfb-dgpsa/public-rev-exam/advisory-consultatif_intro_e.html.
- Health Canada (2008), Progressive Licensing. Voir : http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/homologation-licensing/index_e.html.
- Hébert, P. (2007), « Progressive Licensing Needs Progressive Open Debate », Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol. 176, no 13, p. 1801.
- Hess, D. J. (1997), « If You’re Thinking of Living in STS : A Guide for the Perplexed », in G.L. Downey et J. Dumit (dir.), Cyborgs & Citadels : Anthropological Interventions in Emerging Sciences and Technologies, Santa Fe, School of American Research Press, p. 143-164.
- Irwin, A. (1995), Citizen Science : A Study of People, Expertise and Sustainable Development, Londres, Routledge.
- Irwin, A. et M. Michael (2003), Science, Social Theory and Public Knowledge, Maidenhead, Open University Press.
- Jasanoff, S. (1987), « Contested Boundaries in Policy-relevant Science », Social Studies of Science, vol. 17, no 2, p. 195-230.
- Jasanoff, S. (2005), Designs on Nature : Science and Democracy in Europe and the U. S., Princeton University Press.
- Jasanoff, S. et B. Wynne, (1998), « Science and Decision-making », in S. Rayner et E. L. Malone (dir.), Human Choice and Climate Change, Columbus, Ohio, Battelle Press, p. 1-87.
- Jensen, J. et S. D. Phillips (1996), Regime Shift : New Citizenship Practices in Canada, International Journal of Canadian Studies, (14), p. 113-135.
- Jones, M. (2007), Open Bodies, Legitimation, Networks and UK Human Genetics Governance, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of East Anglia, Norwich, R.-U.
- Jones, M. (2004), « Policy Legitimation, Expert Advice, and Objectivity : “Opening” the UK Governance Framework for Human Genetics », Social Epistemology, vol. 18, no 2-3, p. 257-270.
- Jones, M., J. Walls et T. Horlick-Jones (sous presse), « Separated at Birth ?, Consensus and Contention in the UK Agriculture and Human Biotechnology Commissions », Science and Public Policy.
- Joss, S. et J. Durant (1995), « Introduction », in S. Joss et J. Durant (dir.), Public Participation in Science : The Role of Consensus Conferences in Europe, Londres, Science Museum, p. 9-13.
- Kuhn, T. (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
- Latour, B. (1993), We Have Never Been Modern, New York, Harvester Wheatsheaf.
- Latour, B. (2000), « When Things Strike Back : A Possible Contribution of ‘Science Studies’ to the Social Sciences », British Journal of Sociology, 51 (1), p. 107-123.
- Latour, B. (2002), « Morality and Technology : The End of the Means », Theory, Culture and Society, vol. 19, no 5/6, p. 247-260.
- Latour, B. (2003a), « Is Re-modernization Occurring — And If So, How to Prove It ? », Theory, Culture and Society, vol. 20, no 2, p. 35-48.
- Latour, B. (2003b), « The Promises of Constructivism », in D. Ihde et E. Selinger (dir.), Chasing Technoscience : Matrix for Materiality, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, p. 27- 46.
- Lee, B., L. Haworth et C. G. Brunk (1995), « Values and Science in Impact Assessment », Environments, vol. 23, no 1, 93-101.
- Lexchin, J. et B. Mintzes (2004), « Transparency in Drug Regulation : Mirage or Oasis », CMAJ, 171,11 : p. 1363-1365.
- Lexchin, J. (2007), « Notice of Compliance with Conditions : A Policy in Limbo », Healthcare Policy, vol. 2, no 4, p. 114-122.
- Lipset, S. M. (1959), Political Man, the Social Basis of Politics, New York, Doubleday.
- Longino, H.- E. (1986), « What’s Really Wrong with Quantitative Risk Assessment ? », PSA : Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 2, Symposia and Invited Papers, p. 376-383.
- Marks, H. (1997), The Progress of Experiment : Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990, Cambridge University Press.
- McKechnie, R. (1996), « Insiders and Outsiders : Identifying Experts on Home Ground », in A. Irwin et B. Wynne (dir.), Misunderstanding Science ?, The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 126-151.
- Meynaud, J. (1968), Technocracy, Londres, Faber.
- Nowotny, H. (2003), « Democratising Expertise and Socially Robust Knowledge », Science and Public Policy, vol. 30, no 2, p. 151-156.
- OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) (1979), Technology on Trial : Public Participation in Decision-making Related to Science and Technology, Paris, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
- Ong, E. K. et S. A. Glantz (2001), « Constructing “Sound Science” and “Good Epidemiology” : Tobacco, Lawyers, and Public Relations Firms », American Journal of Public Health, vol. 91, no 11, p. 1749-1757.
- Ozdemir, V., B. Williams-Jones, J. E. Graham, S. H. Preskorn, D. Gripeos, S. J. Glatt, R. H. Friis, C. Reist, S. Szabo, J. Lohr, T. Someya (2007), « Asymmetry in Scientific Method and Limits to Cross-disciplinary Dialogue : Towards a Shared Language and Science Policy in Pharmacogenomics and Human Disease Genetics », Journal of Investigative Medicine, vol. 55, no 3, p. 130-141.
- Polanyi, M. (1964), Science, Faith and Society, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
- Preston, R. (1975), Cree Narrative : Expressing the Personal Meaning of Events, Ottawa, National Museum of Man.
- Rifkin, J. (1998), The Biotech Century : Harnessing the Gene and Remaking the World, New York, Tarcher Putnam.
- Rip, A. (2003), « Constructing Expertise : In a Third Wave of Science Studies ? », Social Studies of Science, vol. 33, no 3, p. 419-434.
- Rip, A., T. J. Misa et J. Schot (1995), « Constructive Technology Assessment : A New Paradigm for Managing Technology in Society », in A. Rip, T. J. Misa, et J. Schot (dir.), Managing Technology in Society, Londres, Pinter, p. 1-14.
- Ross, A. (1993), « The Challenge of Science », in S. During (dir.), The Cultural Studies Reader, Londres, Routledge, p. 292-304.
- Rothstein, H. R. (2003), « Neglected Risk Regulation : The Institutional Attenuation Phenomenon », Health, Risk and Society, vol. 5, no 1, p. 85-102.
- Schott, T. (1993), « World Science : Globalization of Institutions and Participation », Science, Technology & Human Values, vol. 18, no 2, p. 196-208.
- Sclove, R. E. (1995), Democracy and Technology, New York, The Guilford Press.
- Shiva, V. (1989), Staying Alive : Women, Ecology and Development, Londres, Zed Books.
- Star, S. L. et J. R. Griesemer (1989), « Institutional Ecology, “Translations” and Boundary Objects : Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology », 1907-1939, Social Studies of Science, vol. 19, no 3, p. 387-420.
- Van Zwanenberg, P., E. Millstone (2000), « Evaluating the Social Constructions of Expert Risk Assessments », Science, Technology, & Human Values, vol. 25, no 3, p. 259-282.
- Wynne, B. (1991), « Knowledges in Context », Science, Technology, and Human Values, vol. 16, no 1, p. 111-121.
- Wynne, B. (2003), « Seasick on the Third Wave ? Subverting the Hegemony of Propositionalism : Response to Collins & Evans (2002) », Social Studies of Science, vol. 33, no 3, p. 40-417.