Abstracts
Résumé
Ce texte présente un portrait à la fois synthèse et critique de la question des MOOC (massive open online courses) ou les CLOM (cours en ligne ouverts et massifs) en enseignement universitaire. Nous présentons d’abord l’historique de cette innovation en pédagogie universitaire, les principaux acteurs universitaires impliqués dans la création de MOOC, la question de la gratuité réelle de cette nouvelle tendance, puis les composantes des MOOC. Nous traitons aussi de la pédagogie à des supergroupes : comment enseigne-t-on à plus de 100 000 étudiants? La question des méthodes et techniques d’évaluation, puis celle des MOOC dits connectivistes sont aussi abordées. À partir d’une recension de quelque 100 écrits, une synthèse des résultats de recherche sur la question vient clore ce manuscrit.
Abstract
This article presents a critical overview of the MOOC (massive open online course) in university education. We review the history of this innovative education delivery mode, highlight the main university actors who developed the MOOC, address the issue of the “openness” or cost-freeness of the MOOC, and describe how the MOOC works. We also discuss the issue of supergroups: how can 100,000 students be taught at once? We then look at assessment methods and so-called connectivist MOOCs. We conclude by reviewing the results of about 100 studies on the MOOC.
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Appendices
Bibliographie
- Alario-Hoyos, C., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., Delgado-Kloos, C., Parada, H. A., Muñoz-Organero, M. et Rodríguez-de-las-Heras, A. (2013). Analysing the impact of built-in and external social tools in a MOOC on educational technologies. Dans D. Hernández-Leo, T. Ley, R. Klamma et A. Harrer (dir.), Scaling up learning for sustained impact (p. 5-18). Berlin, Allemagne: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40814-4_2
- Anders, G. (2013, 10 juillet). Coursera hits 4 million students - and triples its funding. Récupéré de http://forbes.com
- Barber, J. G. (2013). E-learning: Supplementary or disruptive? Telecommunications Journal of Australia, 63(1), 12.1-12.6. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://tja.org.au
- Belanger, Y. et Thornton, J. (2013). Bioelectricity: A quantitative approach. Duke University’s first MOOC. Récupéré de DukeSpace : http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace
- Booker, E. (2013, 30 janvier). Early MOOC takes a different path. Récupéré de http://informationweek.com
- Bourcieu, S. et Léon, O. (2013). Les MOOC, alliés ou concurrents des business schools? L’Expansion Management Review, 149, 14-24.
- Breslow, L., Pritchard, D. E., DeBoer, J., Stump, G. S., Ho, A. D. et Seaton, D. T. (2013). Studying learning in the worldwide classroom research into edX’s first MOOC. Research & Practice in Assessment, 8, 13-25. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://rpajournal.com
- Bruff, D. O., Fisher, D. H., McEwen, K. E. et Smith, B. E. (2013). Wrapping a MOOC: Student perceptions of an experiment in blended learning. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 187-199. Récupéré du site de la revue: http://jolt.merlot.org
- Catropa, D. (2013, 24 février). Big (MOOC) data [billet de blogue]. Récupéré de http://insidehighered.com
- Charlin, B., Gagnon, R., Sibert, L. et Van der Vleuten, C. (2002). Le test de concordance de script : un instrument d’évaluation du raisonnement clinique. Pédagogie Médicale, 3(3), 135-144. doi:10.1051/pmed:2002022
- Cisel, M. et Bruillard, E. (2012). Chronique des MOOC. Revue des Sciences et technologies de l’information et de la communication pour l’éducation et la formation, 19. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://sticef.univ-lemans.fr
- Coursera. (n. d.). About Coursera. Récupéré de https://coursera.org
- Cross, S. (2013). Evaluation of the OLDS MOOC curriculum design course: Participant perspectives, expectations and experiences. Récupéré du site Open Research Online : http://oro.open.ac.uk
- Dellarocas, C. et Van Alstyne, M. (2013). Money models for MOOCs: Considering new business models for massive open online courses. Communications of the ACM, 56(8), 25-28. doi:10.1145/2492007.2492017
- Downes, S. (2008). CCK08 - The distributed course. Récupéré de https://sites.google.com/site/themoocguide
- Downes, S. (2011, 5 janvier). ‘Connectivism’ and connective knowledge [billet de blogue]. Récupéré de http://huffingtonpost.com
- Duffy, J. P. (1994). How to earn a college degree without going to college (2e éd.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
- EDUCAUSE. (2012). What campus leaders need to know about MOOCs. Récupéré de http://educause.edu
- Fini, A. (2009). The technological dimension of a massive open online course: The case of the CCK08 course tools. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10(5). Récupéré du site de la revue : http://www.irrodl.org
- Fowler, L. et Smith, K. (2013). Drawing the blueprint as we build: Setting up a library-based copyright and permissions service for MOOCs. D-Lib Magazine, 19(7-8). Récupéré du site de la revue : http://dlib.org
- Gaffield, C. (2012). History of education. Récupéré de http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com
- Gerrity, T. W. (1976). College-sponsored correspondence instruction in the United States: A comparative history of its origins (1873-1915) and its recent developments (1960-1975) (Thèse de doctorat non publiée). Columbia University, New York, NY.
- Gillani, N. (2013). Learner communications in massively open online courses (OxCHEPS Occasional Paper No. 53). Récupéré du site du Oxford Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies : http://oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk
- Glance, D. G., Forsey, M. et Riley, M. (2013). The pedagogical foundations of massive open online courses. First Monday, 18(5-6). Récupéré du site de la revue : http://firstmonday.org
- Haggard, S. (2013). The maturing of the MOOC. BIS research paper number 130: litterature review of massive online courses and other forms of online distance learning. Récupéré du site du Department for Business, Innovation and Skills du Royaume-Uni : https://gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-business-innovation-skills
- Harder, B. (2013). Are MOOCs the future of medical education? BMJ, 346, f2666. doi:10.1136/bmj.f2666
- Hyman, P. (2012). In the year of disruptive education. Communications of the ACM, 55(12), 20-22. doi:10.1145/2380656.2380664
- Karsenti, T. (2002, avril). Le professeur d’université : une espèce en mut@tion. Communication présentée au Colloque sur les technologies et l’éducation, CREPUQ, Montréal, QC.
- Karsenti, T. (2003). L’accès aux savoirs dans l’université internaute. Autre Forum, 7(4), 14-19.
- Karsenti, T., Lepage, M. et Gervais, C. (2002). @ccompagnement des stagiaires à l’ère des TIC : forum électronique ou groupe de discussion? Formation et profession, 8(2), 7-12. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://crifpe.ca/formationprofessions
- Kett, J. F. (1994). The pursuit of knowledge under difficulties: From self-improvement to adult education in America, 1750-1990. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
- Khalil, H. et Ebner, M. (2013). «How satisfied are you with your MOOC?” - A research study on interaction in huge online courses. Dans J. Herrington et al. (dir.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2013 (p. 830-839). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
- Kolowich, S. (2013, 21 février). How edX plans to earn, and share, revenue from its free online courses. Récupéré de http://chronicle.com
- Kolowich, S. (n. d.). The professors who make the MOOCs. Récupéré de http://chronicle.com
- Kop, R. (2011). The challenges to connectivist learning on open online networks: Learning experiences during a massive open online course. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(3), 19-38. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://www.irrodl.org
- Kop, R., Fournier, H. et Mak, J. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance or a pedagogy to support human beings? Participant support on massive open online courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(7), 74-93. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://www.irrodl.org
- Liss, J. M. (2013). Creative destruction and globalization: The rise of massive standardized education platforms. Globalizations, 10(4), 557-570. doi:10.1080/14747731.2013.806741
- Mackness, J., Mak, S. F. J. et Williams, R. (2010). The ideals and reality of participating in a MOOC. Dans L. Dirckinck-Holmfeld, V. Hodgson, C. Jones, M. de Laat, D. McConnell et T. Ryberg (dir.), Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Networked Learning 2010 (p. 266-274). Récupéré du site de la conférence : http://lancaster.ac.uk/fss/organisations/netlc/past/nlc2010/index.htm
- Manning, J. et Sanders, M. (2013, 18 juillet). How widely used are MOOC forums? A first look. [billet de blogue]. Récupéré du blogue Signal : thoughts on online learning : https://stanford.edu/dept/vpol/cgi-bin/wordpress
- Milligan, C., Littlejohn, A. et Margaryan, A. (2013). Patterns of engagement in connectivist MOOCs. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 149-159. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://jolt.merlot.org
- Moody’s Investors Services. (2012). Shifting ground: Technology begins to alter centuries-old business model for universities - massive open online courses produce mixed credit effects for the higher education sector. Récupéré de http://etsu.edu
- OCDE. (2012). Regards sur l’éducation 2012: les indicateurs de l’OCDE. Paris, France: Éditions OCDE. Récupéré de http://www.oecd.org
- Pantò, E. et Comas-Quinn, A. (2013). The challenge of open education. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Society, 9(1), 11-22. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://je-lks.org
- Pappano, L. (2012, 2 novembre). The year of the MOOC. New York Times, ED26. Récupéré de http://nytimes.com
- Pence, H. E. (2013). When will college truly leave the building: If MOOCS are the answer, what is the question? Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 41(1), 25-33. doi:10.2190/ET.41.1.c
- Porter, J. E. (2013). MOOCs, «courses,» and the question of faculty and student copyrights. Dans C. Ratliff (dir.), The CCCC-IP Annual: Top intellectual property developments of 2012 (p. 2-18). Urbana, IL: Intellectual Property Caucus of the Conference on College Composition and Communication. Récupéré du site du CCCC : http://ncte.org/cccc
- Rodriguez, C. O. (2013). The concept of openness behind c and x-moocs (massive open online courses). Open Praxis, 5(1), 67-73. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://openpraxis.org
- Sangrà, A. et Wheeler, S. (2013). New informal ways of learning: Or are we formalising the informal? Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 10(1), 286-293. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://www.uoc.edu/ojs/index.php/rusc/index
- Schroeder, R. et Levin, C. (2012). eduMOOC: Open online learning without limits. Conférence présentée au 28e Annual Conference on Distance Teaching & Learning. Récupéré du site de la conférence : http://uwex.edu/disted/conference
- Shirky, C. (2013, 8 juillet). MOOCs and economic reality [billet de blogue]. Récupéré de http://chronicle.com
- Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 3-10. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://itdl.org
- Siemens, G. (2012). MOOCs are really a platform [billet de blogue]. Récupéré de http://elearnspace.org
- Sonwalkar, N. (2013). Why the MOOCs Forum now? MOOCs Forum, 1(1), 1. doi:10.1089/mooc.2013.0005
- Ticknor, A. E. (1891). A precursor of university extension. Book News, 351-352.
- Tschofen, C. et Mackness, J. (2012). Connectivism and dimensions of individual experience. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(1). Récupéré du site de la revue : http://www.irrodl.org
- Vardi, M. Y. (2012). Will MOOCs destroy academia? Communications of the ACM, 55(11), 5. doi:10.1145/2366316.2366317
- Voss, B. D. (2013). Massive open online courses (MOOCs): A primer for university and college board members. Récupéré du site de l’Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges : http://agb.org
- Watkins, B. L. (1991). A quite radical idea: The invention and elaboration of collegiate correspondence study. Dans B. L. Watkins et S. J. Wright (dir.), The foundations of American distance education: A century of collegiate correspondence study (p. 1-35). Dubuque, IO: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
- Weissmann, J. (2012, 18 juillet). The single most important experiment in higher education. Récupéré de http://theatlantic.com
- Yeager, C., Hurley-Dasgupta, B. et Bliss, C. A. (2013). cMOOCs and global learning: An authentic alternative. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 17(2), 133-147. Récupéré du site de la revue : http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/jaln_main
- Young, J. R. (2013, 27 janvier). The object formerly known as the textbook. Récupéré de http://chronicle.com
- Yuan, L. et Powell, S. (2013). MOOCs and open education: Implications for higher education. Récupéré du site du Centre for Educational Technology, Interoperability and Standards : http://publications.cetis.ac.uk
- Zigerell, J. (1984). Distance education: An information age approach to adult education. Columbus, OH: The national center for Research in Vocational Education, Ohio State university.
Appendices
Bibliography
- Alario-Hoyos, C., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., Delgado-Kloos, C., Parada, H. A., Muñoz-Organero, M., & Rodríguez-de-las-Heras, A. (2013). Analysing the impact of built-in and external social tools in a MOOC on educational technologies. In D. Hernández-Leo, T. Ley, R. Klamma, & A. Harrer (Eds.), Scaling up learning for sustained impact (pp. 5-18). Berlin, Germany: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-40814-4_2
- Anders, G. (2013, July 10). Coursera hits 4 million students – and triples its funding. Retrieved from http://forbes.com
- Barber, J. G. (2013). E-learning: Supplementary or disruptive? Telecommunications Journal of Australia, 63(1), 12.1-12.6. Retrieved from http://tja.org.au
- Belanger, Y., & Thornton, J. (2013). Bioelectricity: A quantitative approach. Duke University’s first MOOC. Retrieved from http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace
- Booker, E. (2013, January 30). Early MOOC takes a different path. Retrieved from http://informationweek.com
- Bourcieu, S., & Léon, O. (2013). Les MOOC, alliés ou concurrents des business schools? L’Expansion Management Review, 149, 14-24.
- Breslow, L., Pritchard, D. E., DeBoer, J., Stump, G. S., Ho, A. D., & Seaton, D. T. (2013). Studying learning in the worldwide classroom research into edX’s first MOOC. Research & Practice in Assessment, 8, 13-25. Retrieved from http://rpajournal.com
- Bruff, D. O., FIsher, D. H., McEwen, K. E., & Smith, B. E. (2013). Wrapping a MOOC: Student perceptions of an experiment in blended learning. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 187-199. Retrieved from http://jolt.merlot.org
- Catropa, D. (2013, February 24). Big (MOOC) data [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://insidehighered.com
- Charlin, B., Gagnon, R., Sibert, L., & Van der Vleuten, C. (2002). Le test de concordance de script: un instrument d’évaluation du raisonnement clinique. Pédagogie Médicale, 3(3), 135-144. doi:10.1051/pmed:2002022
- Cisel, M., & Bruillard, E. (2012). Chronique des MOOC. Revue des Sciences et technologies de l’information et de la communication pour l’éducation et la formation, 19. Retrieved from http://sticef.univ-lemans.fr
- Coursera. (n. d.). About Coursera. Retrieved from https://coursera.org
- Cross, S. (2013). Evaluation of the OLDS MOOC curriculum design course: Participant perspectives, expectations and experiences. Retrieved from http://oro.open.ac.uk
- Dellarocas, C., & Van Alstyne, M. (2013). Money models for MOOCs: Considering new business models for massive open online courses. Communications of the ACM, 56(8), 25-28. doi:10.1145/2492007.2492017
- Downes, S. (2008). CCK08 - The distributed course. Retrieved from https://sites.google.com/site/themoocguide
- Downes, S. (2011, January 5). ‘Connectivism’ and connective knowledge [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://huffingtonpost.com
- Duffy, J. P. (1994). How to earn a college degree without going to college (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
- EDUCAUSE. (2012). What campus leaders need to know about MOOCs. Retrieved from http://educause.edu
- Fini, A. (2009). The technological dimension of a massive open online course: The case of the CCK08 course tools. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10(5). Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org
- Fowler, L., & Smith, K. (2013). Drawing the blueprint as we build: Setting up a library-based copyright and permissions service for MOOCs. D-Lib Magazine, 19(7-8). Retrieved from http://dlib.org
- Gaffield, C. (2012). History of education. Retrieved from http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com
- Gerrity, T. W. (1976). College-sponsored correspondence instruction in the United States: A comparative history of its origins (1873-1915) and its recent developments (1960-1975) (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Columbia University, New York, NY.
- Gillani, N. (2013). Learner communications in massively open online courses (OxCHEPS Occasional Paper No. 53). Retrieved from http://oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk
- Glance, D. G., Forsey, M., & Riley, M. (2013). The pedagogical foundations of massive open online courses. First Monday, 18(5-6). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org
- Haggard, S. (2013). The maturing of the MOOC. BIS research paper number 130: literature review of massive online courses and other forms of online distance learning. Retrieved from https://gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-business-innovation-skills
- Harder, B. (2013). Are MOOCs the future of medical education? BMJ, 346, f2666. doi:10.1136/bmj.f2666
- Hyman, P. (2012). In the year of disruptive education. Communications of the ACM, 55(12), 20-22. doi:10.1145/2380656.2380664
- Karsenti, T. (2002, April). Le professeur d’université: une espèce en mut@tion. Paper presented at the Colloque sur les technologies et l’éducation, CREPUQ, Montréal, QC.
- Karsenti, T. (2003). L’accès aux savoirs dans l’université internaute. Autre Forum, 7(4), 14-19.
- Karsenti, T., Lepage, M., & Gervais, C. (2002). @ccompagnement des stagiaires à l’ère des TIC: forum électronique ou groupe de discussion? Formation et profession, 8(2), 7-12. Retrieved from http://crifpe.ca/formationprofessions
- Kett, J. F. (1994). The pursuit of knowledge under difficulties: From self-improvement to adult education in America, 1750-1990. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
- Khalil, H., & Ebner, M. (2013). “How satisfied are you with your MOOC?” - A research study on interaction in huge online courses. In J. Herrington et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2013 (pp. 830-839). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
- Kolowich, S. (2013, February 21). How edX plans to earn, and share, revenue from its free online courses. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com
- Kolowich, S. (n.d.). The professors who make the MOOCs. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com
- Kop, R. (2011). The challenges to connectivist learning on open online networks: Learning experiences during a massive open online course. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(3), 19-38. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org
- Kop, R., Fournier, H., & Mak, J. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance or a pedagogy to support human beings? Participant support on massive open online courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(7), 74-93. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org
- Liss, J. M. (2013). Creative destruction and globalization: The rise of massive standardized education platforms. Globalizations, 10(4), 557-570. doi:10.1080/14747731.2013.806741
- Mackness, J., Mak, S. F. J., & Williams, R. (2010). The ideals and reality of participating in a MOOC. In L. Dirckinck-Holmfeld, V. Hodgson, C. Jones, M. de Laat, D. McConnell, & T. Ryberg (Eds.), Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Networked Learning 2010 (pp. 266-274). Retrieved from http://lancaster.ac.uk/fss/organisations/netlc/past/nlc2010/index.htm
- Manning, J., & Sanders, M. (2013, July 18). How widely used are MOOC forums? A first look. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://stanford.edu/dept/vpol/cgi-bin/wordpress
- Milligan, C., Littlejohn, A., & Margaryan, A. (2013). Patterns of engagement in connectivist MOOCs. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 149-159. Retrieved from http://jolt.merlot.org
- Moody’s Investors Services. (2012). Shifting ground: Technology begins to alter centuries-old business model for universities - massive open online courses produce mixed credit effects for the higher education sector. Retrieved from http://etsu.edu
- OECD. (2012). Education at a Glance 2012: OECD Indicators. Paris, France: OECD Editions. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org
- Pantò, E., & Comas-Quinn, A. (2013). The challenge of open education. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Society, 9(1), 11-22. Retrieved from http://je-lks.org
- Pappano, L. (2012, November 2). The year of the MOOC. New York Times, ED26. Retrieved from http://nytimes.com
- Pence, H. E. (2013). When will college truly leave the building: If MOOCS are the answer, what is the question? Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 41(1), 25-33. doi:10.2190/ET.41.1.c
- Porter, J. E. (2013). MOOCs, “courses,” and the question of faculty and student copyrights. In C. Ratliff (Ed.), The CCCC-IP Annual: Top intellectual property developments of 2012 (pp. 2-18). Urbana, IL: Intellectual Property Caucus of the Conference on College Composition and Communication. Retrieved from http://ncte.org/cccc
- Rodriguez, C. O. (2013). The concept of openness behind c and x-moocs (massive open online courses). Open Praxis, 5(1), 67-73. Retrieved from http://openpraxis.org
- Sangrà, A., & Wheeler, S. (2013). New informal ways of learning: Or are we formalising the informal? Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 10(1), 286-293. Retrieved from http://www.uoc.edu/ojs/index.php/rusc/index
- Schroeder, R., & Levin, C. (2012). eduMOOC: Open online learning without limits. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching & Learning. Retrieved from http://uwex.edu/disted/conference
- Shirky, C. (2013, July 8). MOOCs and economic reality [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com
- Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 3-10. Retrieved from http://itdl.org
- Siemens, G. (2012). MOOCs are really a platform [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://elearnspace.org
- Sonwalkar, N. (2013). Why the MOOCs Forum now? MOOCs Forum, 1(1), 1. doi:10.1089/mooc.2013.0005
- Ticknor, A. E. (1891). A precursor of university extension. Book News, 351-352.
- Tschofen, C., & Mackness, J. (2012). Connectivism and dimensions of individual experience. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(1). Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org
- Vardi, M. Y. (2012). Will MOOCs destroy academia? Communications of the ACM, 55(11), 5. doi:10.1145/2366316.2366317
- Voss, B. D. (2013). Massive open online courses (MOOCs): A primer for university and college board members. Retrieved from http://agb.org
- Watkins, B. L. (1991). A quite radical idea: The invention and elaboration of collegiate correspondence study. In B. L. Watkins, & S. J. Wright (Eds.), The foundations of American distance education: A century of collegiate correspondence study (pp. 1-35). Dubuque, IO: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
- Weissmann, J. (2012, July 18). The single most important experiment in higher education. Retrieved from http://theatlantic.com
- Yeager, C., Hurley-Dasgupta, B., & Bliss, C. A. (2013). cMOOCs and global learning: An authentic alternative. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 17(2), 133-147. Retrieved from http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/jaln_main
- Young, J. R. (2013, January 27). The object formerly known as the textbook. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com
- Yuan, L., & Powell, S. (2013). MOOCs and open education: Implications for higher education. Retrieved from http://publications.cetis.ac.uk
- Zigerell, J. (1984). Distance education: An information age approach to adult education. Columbus, OH: The national center for Research in Vocational Education, Ohio State university.