Abstracts
Summary
The global COVID-19 pandemic acted as an exogenous shock that forced organizations to adopt homeworking as a common form of work for many occupations. By that time researchers had been stressing the gap between technical feasibility of homeworking – reaching on average one third of employment in both the US and EU28 (Dingel and Neiman 2020, Sostero et al. 2020) – and its practical adoption in organisations. The massive shift to homeworking during the pandemic – especially in countries such as France and Italy, which both experienced a widespread lockdown during the first wave – has been an opportunity to study homeworking across a large and heterogeneous cross-section of occupations and sectors. To that end, the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (in Seville) funded real-time cross-occupational qualitative research on which this paper is based.
First, drawing on studies that attribute the delayed spread of homeworking to the dialectic between workers' self-latitude and managerial control, we examined how compulsory homeworking affected workers’ self-latitude to define and perform their tasks. We identified two different phases and temporary arrangements of the worker self-latitude/managerial control dialectic during the time under study. Second, we analyzed how different forms of control developed under the new organization of work. Specifically, we studied how the outcomes varied by occupation and along the vertical division of labour. Our results suggest an ongoing hybridization of personal, technical and bureaucratic forms of control. Accordingly, we agree with labour process theorists who argue that personal, bureaucratic and technical forms of control complement each other, rather than being stages of a linear and functionalist succession.
Abstract
The global COVID-19 pandemic acted as an exogenous shock that forced organizations to adopt homeworking as a common form of work for many occupations. Drawing on a real-time cross-occupational qualitative survey, we first examined how compulsory homeworking affected workers’ freedom to define and perform their tasks. Second, we analyzed how different forms of control developed under the new organization of work. Specifically, we studied how the outcomes varied by occupation and along the vertical division of labour. Our findings agree with those of labour process theorists who argue that personal, bureaucratic and technical forms of control complement each other, rather than being stages of a linear succession.
JEL classification: L23, M54, 033, J81.
Keywords:
- homeworking,
- work organization,
- labour process,
- autonomy,
- control
Résumé
La pandémie mondiale de COVID-19 a agi comme un choc exogène qui a forcé les organisations à adopter le télétravail comme une forme de travail courante pour de nombreuses professions. À cette date, des chercheurs avaient souligné l'écart entre la faisabilité technique du télétravail – atteignant en moyenne un tiers des emplois aux États-Unis et dans l'UE28 (Dingel et Neiman 2020, Sostero et al. 2020) – et son adoption pratique dans les organisations. Le passage massif au télétravail pendant la pandémie – en particulier dans des pays comme la France et l'Italie, qui ont tous deux connu un confinement généralisé pendant la première vague – a été l'occasion d'étudier le télétravail dans un éventail large et hétérogène de professions et de secteurs. À cette fin, le Joint Research Centre de la Commission européenne (basé à Séville) a financé une recherche qualitative inter-professionnelle en temps réel sur laquelle se base cet article.
Tout d'abord, en nous appuyant sur des études qui attribuent la diffusion tardive du télétravail à la dialectique entre la latitude personnelle des travailleurs et le contrôle managérial, nous examinons comment le télétravail mandaté a affecté la latitude personnelle des travailleurs à définir et à exécuter leurs tâches. Nous identifions deux phases et arrangements temporaires différents de la dialectique entre la latitude personnelle des travailleurs et le contrôle managérial au cours de la période étudiée. Deuxièmement, nous analysons comment différentes formes de contrôle se sont développées dans le cadre de la nouvelle organisation du travail. Plus précisément, nous étudions comment ces développements varient en fonction de la profession et de la division verticale du travail. Nos résultats suggèrent une hybridation continue des formes de contrôle personnelles, techniques et bureaucratiques. Par conséquent, nous rejoignons les théoriciens du processus de travail qui soutiennent que les formes de contrôle personnel, bureaucratique et technique se complémentent mutuellement, plutôt que d'être des stades d'une succession linéaire et fonctionnaliste.
Appendices
Bibliography
- Aguilera, A., Lethiais, V., Rallet, A., & Proulhac, L. (2016). Home-based telework in France: Characteristics, barriers and perspectives. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 92, 1–11.
- Alipour, J. V, & Falck, O. (2020). Germany’s Capacities to Work from Home, CESifo Working Paper No. 8227.
- Alvesson, Mats and Dan Karreman (2011). Qualitative Research and Theory Development: Mystery as Method. Sage.
- Bisello, M., Fana M., Fernández-Macías, E., M., Torrejon-Perez, S. (2021). A comprehensive European database of tasks indices for socio-economic research, No. 2021-04, JRC Working Papers on Labour, Education and Technology, Joint Research Centre (Seville site).
- Bloom, N., Liang, J., Roberts, J., & Ying, Z. J. (2015). Does Working from Home Work? Evidence from a Chinese Experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130(1), 165–218.
- Braverman, H. (1974). Labor and Monopoly Capital. Monthly Review Press.
- Callaghan, G., Thompson, P. (2001). Edwards Revisited: Technical Control and Call Centres. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 22(1), 13-37.
- Cetrulo, A., Guarascio, D., & Virgillito, M. E. (2020a). The Privilege of Working from Home at the Time of Social Distancing. Intereconomics, 55(3), 142–147.
- Cetrulo, A., Guarascio, D., & Virgillito, M. E. (2020b). Anatomy of the Italian occupational structure: concentrated power and distributed knowledge. Industrial and Corporate Change, 29(6), 1345–1379.
- Clear, F. and Dickson, K. (2005). Teleworking practice in small and medium-sized firms: management style and worker autonomy. New Technology, Work and Employment20(3), 218-233.
- Corbin, Juliet M. and Anselm Strauss (1990). Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons, and Evaluative Criteria. Qualitative Sociology, 13(1), 3-21.
- Dimitrova, D. (2003). Controlling teleworkers: Supervision and flexibility revisited. New Technology, Work and Employment, 18(3), 181–195.
- Dingel, J., & Neiman, B. (2020). How Many Jobs Can be Done at Home?. Journal of Public Economics, 189, 104235
- Dosi, G. and Marengo, L. (2015). The dynamics of organizational structures and performances under diverging distributions of knowledge and different power structures, Journal of Institutional Economics, 11(3), pp. 535–559.
- Edwards, R. (1979). Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century. Basic Books.
- Edwards, R. (1984). Forms of Control in the Labor Process: An Historical Analysis. In: F. Fischer F. and Sirianni C. (eds), Organization and Bureaucracy. Temple University Press, pp. 109-42.
- European Framework Agreement on Telework, EUR-Lex (2002). https://resourcecentre.etuc.org/sites/default/files/2020-09/Telework%202002_Framework%20Agreement%20-%20EN.pdf
- Eurostat (2021). Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment. Eurostat Database.
- Fana, M., Torrejón, S., & Fernández-Macías, E. (2020). Employment impact of Covid-19 crisis: from short term effects to long terms prospects. Journal of Industrial and Business Economics 47, 391–410.
- Felstead, A. & Henseke, G. (2017). Assessing the growth of remote working and its consequences for effort, well-being and work–life balance. New Technology, Work and Employment 32(3), 195-212.
- Felstead, A., Jewson, N., & Walters, S. (2003). Managerial Control of Employees Working at Home. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 41(2), 241–264.
- Fernández-Macías, E. and Bisello, M. (2022). A Comprehensive Taxonomy of Tasks for Assessing the Impact of New Technologies on Work. Social Indicators Research 159, 821–841
- Galasso, V., & Foucault, M. (2020). Working after covid-19: cross-country evidence from real-time survey data. Sciences Po publications 9, Sciences Po.
- Hensvik, L., & Le Barbanchon, T. (2020). Which Jobs Are Done from Home? Evidence from the American Time Use Survey, CEPR Discussion Paper, No. DP14611.
- Huws, U., Korte, W. B., & Robinson, S. (1990). Telework: Towards the Elusive Office. Wiley.
- Illegems, V., Verbeke, A., & S’Jegers, R. (2001). The organizational context of teleworking implementation. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 68(3), 275–291.
- Korte, W. B., & Wynne, R. (1996). Telework: Penetration, Potential, and Practice in Europe. IOS Press.
- Kraut, R.E. (1989). Telecommuting: The Trade-offs of Home Work. Journal of Communication, 39(3): 19-47.
- Kurkland, N. B., & Bailey, D. E. (1999). The advantages and challenges of working here, there anywhere, and anytime. Organizational Dynamics, 28(2), 53–68.
- Littler, C. R., Salaman, G. (1982). Bravermania and Beyond: Recent Theories of the Labour Process. Sociology, 16(2), 251–69.
- Maggi, B. (2016). De l’agir organisationnel. Un point de vue sur le travail, le bien-être, l’apprentissage. TAO Digital Library.
- Mazmanian, M., Orlikowski, W., & Yates, J. (2013). The autonomy paradox: The implications of mobile email devices for knowledge professionals. Organization Science, 24, 1337–1357.
- Messenger, J. (2019). Telework in the 21st Century: An Evolutionary Perspective. Edward Elgar.
- Neirotti, P., Paolucci, E., & Raguseo, E. (2013). Mapping the antecedents of telework diffusion: Firm-level evidence from Italy. New Technology, Work and Employment, 28(1), 16–36.
- Nilles, J. M. (1975). Telecommunications and Organizational Decentralization. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 23(10), 1142–1147.
- Olson, M. H. (1988). Organizational barriers to telework. In: W. Korte, S. Robinson and W. Steinle (eds), Telework: Present Situation and Future Development of a New Form of Work Organization. Elsevier Sciences, 77–100.
- Olson, Margrethe H., & Primps, S. B. (1984). Working at Home with Computers: Work and Nonwork Issues. Journal of Social Issues, 40(3), 97–112.
- Pouliakas, K., & Branka, J. (2020). EU Jobs at Highest Risk of COVID-19 Social Distancing: Will the Pandemic Exacerbate Labour Market Divide? IZA Discussion Paper, 13281.
- Pyöriä, P. (2011). Managing telework: Risks, fears and rules. Management Research Review,34(4), 386–399.
- Sewell, G., & Taskin, L. (2015). Out of Sight, Out of Mind in a New World of Work? Autonomy, Control, and Spatiotemporal Scaling in Telework. Organization Studies, 36(11), 1507–1529.
- Sostero, M., Milasi, S., Hurley, J., Fernandez-Macías, E., & Bisello, M. (2020). Teleworkability and the COVID-19 crisis: a new digital divide? LET Working Paper Series 5/2020.
- Steinle W. (1988). Telework: Opening Remarks on an Open Debate. In: W. Korte, S. Robinson and W. Steinle (eds), Telework: Present Situation and Future Development of a new Form of Work Organization. Elsevier Sciences, pp. 7-23.
- Sturdy, A., Fleming, P. & Delbridge, R. (2010). Normative Control and Beyond in Contemporary Capitalism. In: Thompson, P. & Smith, C. Working Life: Renewing Labour Process Analysis, Palgrave-MacMillan, 113-135.
- Taskin, L., & Edwards, P. (2007). The possibilities and limits of telework in a bureaucratic environment: Lessons from the public sector. New Technology, Work and Employment, 22(3), 195–207.
- Thompson, P. (1983). The Nature of Work. MacMillan.
- Toffler, A. (1980). The Third Wave. Bantam.
- Vallas, S. P. (1999). Rethinking Post-Fordism: The Meaning of Workplace Flexibility. Sociological Theory, 17(1), 68–101.
- Vidal, M. (2022). Management Divided. Contradictions of Labor Management. Oxford University Press.
- Zuboff, S. (1988). In the Age of the Smart Machine. Basic Books.