Abstracts
Summary
This paper addressed two research questions related to employment throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. First, how did the prevalence of different types of nonstandard employment change before and during the COVID-19 pandemic? Second, how did these changes differ by gender, immigration status, and age group? These questions are important to understanding how economic uncertainty and downturn may impact the types of employment that workers enter and who is impacted.
This study pools together 10 Canadian Labour Force Surveys from May 2017 to November 2021 and employs a multivariate linear regression analysis to answer the previously stated research objectives. Within these regression models, we examined the likelihood of entering temporary employment, part-time employment, and nonstandard self-employment before and throughout the pandemic. We also ran several interaction models to test whether changes to different types of nonstandard employment differed by sex, immigration status, and age. These interactions tested whether the likelihood of nonstandard employment differs by each demographic group before and during the pandemic.
The findings demonstrate that the COVID-19 pandemic differed from previous economic crises in its impact on nonstandard employment. The main finding was that rates of nonstandard wage work (temporary and part-time employment) decreased during the first initial lockdown and returned to pre-pandemic levels by the end of 2020. Meanwhile, own-account and part-time self-employment increased during the first wave of the pandemic. During the first few months of the pandemic, the rate of nonstandard employment had a narrower gender gap and a wider immigrant/non-immigrant gap. There is also some evidence that the nonstandard self-employment rate increased among immigrants and women during the first few months.
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has drastically impacted employment across Canada. While several reports show an increase in job loss and unemployment, there is little mention of changes in types of employment during the pandemic. Drawing on the Canadian Labour Force Surveys from 2017-2021, this article explored how the pandemic affected nonstandard employment rates while examining whether these impacts differed by certain sociodemographic variables. Namely, differences in rates of nonstandard employment were explored by gender, immigrant status, and age group. The main finding was that rates of nonstandard wage work (temporary and part-time employment) decreased during the first initial lockdown and returned to pre-pandemic levels by the end of 2020. Meanwhile, own-account and part-time self-employment increased during the first wave of the pandemic. While these increases were uniformly experienced across different groups of workers, there is some evidence of widening or narrowing gaps in rates of nonstandard employment depending on the sociodemographic group.
Keywords:
- nonstandard employment,
- COVID-19 pandemic,
- unemployment,
- Canada,
- Gender,
- Lockdown
Résumé
Comment la prévalence de différents types d'emplois atypiques a-t-elle changé avant et pendant la pandémie de COVID-19 et comment ces changements diffèrent-ils selon le sexe, le statut d'immigration et le groupe d'âge ? Ces questions sont importantes pour comprendre comment l'incertitude et le ralentissement économique peuvent avoir un impact sur les types d'emploi auxquels les travailleurs accèdent.
Cette étude regroupe 10 enquêtes canadiennes sur la population active de mai 2017 à novembre 2021 et utilise une analyse de régression linéaire multivariée pour répondre aux questions de recherche énoncés précédemment. Dans le cadre de ces modèles de régression, nous avons examiné la probabilité d'entrer dans un emploi temporaire, un emploi à temps partiel et un emploi indépendant avant et pendant la pandémie. Nous avons également vérifié si les changements vers différents types d'emplois atypiques différaient selon le sexe, le statut d'immigrant et l'âge.
Nos résultats montrent que la pandémie de COVID-19 diffère des crises économiques précédentes par son impact sur l'emploi atypique. Principalement, les taux d'emploi salarié atypique (emploi temporaire et à temps partiel) ont diminué pendant le confinement initial et sont revenus aux niveaux d'avant la pandémie à la fin de 2020. En même temps, le travail indépendant à son propre compte à temps partiel a augmenté pendant la première vague. Au cours des premiers mois de la pandémie, le taux d'emploi atypique présentait un écart plus restreint entre les sexes et alors que l’écart était plus large entre les immigrants et les non-immigrants. Certains éléments indiquent également que, de manière générale, le taux d'emploi indépendant atypique a augmenté chez les immigrants et les femmes au cours des premiers mois.
Précis
La pandémie de COVID-19 a eu un impact considérable sur l'emploi au Canada. Alors que plusieurs rapports montrent une augmentation des pertes d'emploi et du chômage, peu s’attardent aux changements dans les types d'emploi pendant la pandémie. En s'appuyant sur les enquêtes canadiennes sur la population active de 2017 à 2021, cet article explore comment la pandémie a affecté les taux d'emplois atypiques tout en examinant si ces impacts différaient selon certaines variables sociodémographiques. Plus précisément, les différences dans les taux d'emploi atypique ont été explorées selon le sexe, le statut d'immigrant et le groupe d'âge. La principale conclusion est que les taux d'emploi salarié atypique (emploi temporaire et à temps partiel) ont diminué pendant le premier verrouillage initial et sont revenus aux niveaux pré-pandémiques à la fin de 2020. Parallèlement, le travail indépendant à son propre compte et à temps partiel a augmenté pendant la première vague de la pandémie. Si ces augmentations ont été constatées de manière uniforme dans les différents groupes de travailleurs, certains éléments indiquent que les écarts entre les taux d'emploi atypique se creusent ou se réduisent selon le groupe sociodémographique.
Mots-clés:
- emploi atypique,
- COVID-19,
- chômage,
- Canada,
- Genre,
- Confinement,
- Immigration,
- âge
Appendices
References
- Acker, Joan (1991) “The future of women and work.” Sociological Perspectives 35(1), 53-68.
- Baret, Stjin, Bart Cockx, Niels Gheyle, and Core Vandamme (2015) “Is there less discrimination in occupations where recruitment is difficult?” IRL Review 68(3), 467-500.
- Barford, Anna, Adam Coutts, and Garima Sahai (2021) Youth Employment in Times of Covid. Geneva: International Labour Organization. Retrieved from: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_823751.pdf.
- Brochu, Pierre, Jonathan Créchet, and Zechuan Deng (2020) “Labour market flows and worker trajectories in Canada during COVID-19.” Canadian Labour Economics Form. Working Paper Series, No. 32, University of Waterloo, Canadian Labour Economics Forum (CLEF), Waterloo.
- Brochu, Pierre (2021) “A researcher’s guide to the labour force survey.” Canadian Public Policy 47 (3, 335-357.
- Buzdugan, Raluca, and Shiva S. Halli (2009) “Labor market experiences of Canadian immigrants with focus on foreign education and experience.” International Migration Review 43(2), 366–386.
- Caldbick, Sam, Ronald Labonte, K.S. Mohindra and Arne Ruckert (2014) “Globalization and the rise of precarious employment.” Global Health Promotion 21(2), 23–31.
- Cranford, Cynthia, Leah Vosko, and Nancy Zukewich (2003) “The gender of precarious employment in Canada.” Relations Industrielles/ Industrial Relations 58 (3), 454 -479.
- Cui, Wei (2021) “Policy forum: Nonstandard employment and Canada’s initial pandemic response.” Canadian Tax Journal 69(2), 475-486.
- Fudge, Judy and Leah Vosko (2001) “Gender, segmentation and the standard employment relationship in Canadian labour law and policy.” Economic and Industrial Democracy 22(3), 271-310.
- Fuller, Sylvia (2005) “Public sector employment and gender wage inequalities in British Columbia.” Canadian Journal of Sociology 30 (4), 405-9.
- Fuller, Sylvia and Leah Vosko (2008) “Temporary employment and social inequality in Canada.” Social Indicators Research 88(1), 31–50.
- Fuller, Sylvia (2011) “Up and on or down and out?” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 29, 155–180.
- Fuller, Sylvia and Yue Quian (2021) “COVID-19 and the gender gap in employment among parents with young children in Canada.” Gender & Society 35(2), 206-217.
- Galareau, Diane (2010) Temporary Employment in the Downturn. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/75-001-x/2010111/pdf/11371-eng.pdf?st=izi4dh_E (March 4, 2022).
- Government of Canada (2022) COVID-19: Financial Support for People, Businesses and Organizations. Retrieved from: https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/economic-response-plan.html (March 4, 2022).
- Green, Anne E. and Ilias Livanos (2015) “Involuntary nonstandard work and the economic crisis.” Regional Studies 49(7), 1223-1235.
- Hijman, Remko (2009) The Impact of the Crisis on Employment. Eurostat. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3433488/5279729/KS-SF-09-079-EN.PDF/b81f1b72-e852-4336-8368-0f482017e355 (August 6, 2021).
- Hira-Freisen, Parvinder (2016) “Immigrants and precarious work in Canada.” Journal of International Migration and Integration 19 (1), 35-57.
- Hira-Freisen, Parvinder (2018) “Does employment in precarious work lead to wage disparities for Canadian immigrants?” Canadian Ethnic Studies 50 (1), 69-86.
- Jeon, S.-H., Huju Liu and Yuri Ostrovsky (2019) Measuring the Gig Economy in Canada using Administrative Data. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2019025-eng.htm (August 5, 2021).
- Jeon, S-H., Yuri Ostrovsky (2020) The Impact of COVID-19 on the Gig Economy: Short- and Long-Term Concerns. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2020001/article/00021-eng.htm (August 5, 2021).
- Jones, Stephen, Fabian Lange, Craig Riddell, and Casey Warman (2020) “Waiting for recovery.” Canadian Public Policy 46, S103-S118.
- Kalleberg, Arne (2003) “Flexible firms and labor market segmentation.” Work and Occupations 30(2), 154–175.
- Kalleberg, Arne (2009) “Precarious work, insecure workers: Employment relations in transition.” American Sociological Review 74(1), 1–22.
- Kalleberg, Arne (2011) Good jobs, Bad Jobs: The Rise of Polarized and Precarious Employment Systems in the United States, 1970s to 2000s. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
- Lemieux, Thomas, Kevin Milligan, Tammy Schirle and Mikal Skuterud (2020) “The Initial impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Canadian labour market.” Canadian Public Policy 46(S1), S55-S65.
- Lewchuk, Wayne (2013) “Has there been a she-covery?” Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations 68(1), 24-45.
- Menéndez, Maria, Joan Benach, Carles Muntaner, Marcelo Amable, and Patricia O’Campo. (2007) “Is precarious employment more damaging to women’s health than men’s?” Social Science and Medicine 64(4), 776–781.
- Mize, Trenton (2019) “Best practices for estimating, interpreting, and presenting nonlinear interaction effects.” Sociological Science 6(4), 81-117.
- Mooi-Reci, Irma and Barbara Riseman (2021) “The gendered impacts of COVID-19.” Gender & Society 35(2), 161-167.
- Morissette, Rene, and Anick Johnson (2005) “Are good jobs disappearing in Canada?” Economic Policy Review 11 (1), 23–56.
- Morissette, Rene (2021) Portrait of Youth in Canada: Chapter 2: Youth Employment in Canada. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/42280001
- Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2020) What is the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Immigrants and Their Children? Retrieved from: https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/what-is-the-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-immigrants-and-their-children-e7cbb7de/#section-d1e105
- Peters, John (2012) Boom, Bust and Crisis: Labour, Corporate Power, and Politics in Canada. Halifax, Nova Scotia & Winnipeg, Manitoba: Fernwood Publishing.
- Qian, Yue. and Fuller, Sylvia (2020) “COVID-19 and the gender employment among parents of young children.” Canadian Public Policy 46(S2), S89-S101.
- Ross, Stephanie and Mark P. Thomas (2019) “Organizing in Precarious Times: The Political Economy of Work and Workers’ Movements after the Great Recession.” In Mark P. Thomas, Leah F. Vosko, Carlo Fanelli and Olena Lyubchenko (eds.), Change and Continuity: Canadian Political Economy in the New Millennium. Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, pp. 333-352.
- Shaefer, Luke (2010) “Nonstandard work and economic crisis.” Journal of Poverty 14(1), 17-32.
- Statistics Canada (2009) Canada’s Employment Downturn. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-001-x/2009112/article/11048-eng.htm (April 13, 2021).
- Statistics Canada (2017) Age Categories, Life Cycle Groupings. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/concepts/definitions/age2 (April 13, 2021).
- Statistics Canada (2020) The Social and Economic Impacts of COVID-19. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-631-x/11-631-x2020004-eng.htm (April 1, 2021).
- Statistics Canada (2021) Fallout from the COVID-19 Pandemic. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2021001/article/00020-eng.htm (March 2, 2022).
- Statistics Canada (2022) Labour Force Survey. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from: https://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SDDS=3701 (March 2, 2022).
- St-Denis, Xavier (2020) “Sociodemographic Determinants of Occupational Risks of Exposure to COVID-19 in Canada.” Canadian Review of Sociology 57(3):400-452.
- Thomas, Mark. P, Shelley Condratto, Danielle Landry and Mercedes Steedman (2020) “Flexibility for who? Working time, the Ontario Employment Standards Act and the experiences of workers in low-wage and precarious jobs.” Relations industrielles / Industrial Relations 75(1), 78–100.
- Vosko, Leah (2006) “Precarious employment: Towards an improved understanding of labour market insecurity.” In L. Vosko, ed., Precarious employment: Understanding labour market insecurity in Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, pp.3–42.
- Young, Marisa (2010) “Gender differences in precarious work settings.” Relations industrielles / Industrial Relations 65(1), 74-97.
- Zeytinoglu, Isik Urla, Gordon Cooke, and Sylvie Montreuil (2005) “Nonstandard work and benefits: has anything changed since the Wallace Report?” Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations, 60, 29-63.