Abstracts
Abstract
In the wake of the Rana Plaza tragedy, the Accord and the Alliance were launched as two separate private initiatives alongside the National Initiative (NI) to improve the workplace safety of ready-made garment (RMG) workers in Bangladesh. Together, these three initiatives created multi-level labour regulation with both vertical and horizontal layering. From a multi-level governance perspective, we conducted qualitative research by means of interviews (N = 41) and archival data to analyze the post- Rana Plaza labour regulation experience of Bangladesh’s RMG sector.
While our findings indicate the effectiveness of the vertical flow of institutional regulation, they also reveal significant horizontal challenges during implementation of the private initiatives alongside the public NI. Participants believed that the Accord and the Alliance were more effective than individual corporation-led private monitoring because they both approached intervention with a focus on select safety issues with time-bound deliverables, expertise and resources and with effective exercise of sanctions for noncompliance. In contrast, most of the participants saw the NI as much less effective, deploring its insufficient resources, lack of transparency in reporting progress and “softness” in punishing noncompliance. Horizontal operations of the Accord and the Alliance along with those of the NI created some complexities, such as differences in remediation recommendations, an oppositional attitude among non-public and public regulatory team members and a burden of remediation costs on factory owners.
In the absence of a legal basis for international labour regulation, these findings will help provide a nuanced understanding of the power dynamics involved in negotiating the revised form and extent of international regulation after the expiration of the Accord and the Alliance, thus shedding light on the ever-evolving forms of international labour regulation. This research will contribute to debate among policy makers and scholars on how best to improve workers’ safety in globally dispersed production networks.
Summary
Following the Rana Plaza tragedy, two private institutional regulation initiatives, the Accord and Alliance, emerged to address ready-made garment workers’ safety in Bangladesh, alongside the public National Initiative. These three initiatives constitute multi-level regulation with vertical and horizontal layering. Employing this governance framework, this qualitative study analyzes these initiatives using interviews (N=41) and archival data. Our findings suggest an effective vertical flow of private institutional regulation but reveal significant horizontal challenges. We also examine the power dynamics during implementation and in negotiating international regulation after the expiration of the Accord and Alliance, in the absence of a legal basis for international labour regulation. This research contributes to the debate among policy makers and scholars over how to improve workers’ safety in globally dispersed production networks.
Keywords:
- Bangladesh ,
- RMG industry,
- international labour regulation,
- multi-level governance,
- worker safety,
- qualitative study
Résumé
À la suite de la tragédie de l’édifice du Rana Plaza, l’Accord et l’Alliance ont été lancés en tant que deux initiatives privées distinctes, parallèlement à l’Initiative nationale (IN), afin d’améliorer la sécurité au travail des ouvriers du secteur du prêt-à-porter au Bangladesh. Ensemble, ces trois initiatives ont formé une réglementation du travail à plusieurs niveaux, comportant une stratification verticale et horizontale. Dans une perspective de gouvernance à plusieurs niveaux, nous avons mené une recherche qualitative au moyen d’entretiens (N = 41) et de données d’archives afin d’analyser la réglementation du travail dans le secteur du prêt-à-porter au Bangladesh après l’effondrement du Rana Plaza.
Si nos résultats indiquent l’efficacité du flux vertical de la réglementation institutionnelle, ils révèlent également des défis horizontaux importants quant à la mise en oeuvre des initiatives privées parallèlement à l’IN publique. Les participants ont estimé que l’Accord et l’Alliance étaient plus efficaces que la surveillance privée menée par des sociétés individuelles, puisque ces deux initiatives comportent des interventions axées sur des questions de sécurité précises accompagnées d’échéanciers, d’expertise et de ressources. De plus, ces initiatives prévoient des sanctions en cas de non-conformité. En revanche, la plupart des participants ont considéré que l’IN était beaucoup moins efficace, déplorant ses ressources insuffisantes, son manque de transparence dans le suivi des progrès accomplis et son manque de rigueur dans l’application des sanctions en cas de non-conformité. Les opérations horizontales de l’Accord, de l’Alliance et de l’IN ont créé certaines complexités, comme des divergences concernant les recommandations des mesures de remise en état, des oppositions entre les membres des équipes de réglementation publique et privée, ainsi qu’un fardeau financier pour les propriétaires d’usines devant payer les coûts associés aux mesures de remise en état.
En l’absence d’un fondement juridique pour la réglementation internationale du travail, ces résultats aideront à fournir une compréhension nuancée de la dynamique du pouvoir impliquée dans la négociation de la révision et de l’étendue de la réglementation internationale après l’expiration de l’Accord et de l’Alliance, mettant ainsi en lumière la constante évolution de la réglementation internationale du travail. La présente recherche contribuera au débat entre les décideurs politiques et les universitaires sur la meilleure façon d’améliorer la sécurité des travailleurs dans les réseaux de production établis partout dans le monde.
Précis
Suite à la tragédie du Rana Plaza, en tant que deux initiatives privées distinctes, l’Accord et l’Alliance, ont été lancés parallèlement à l’Initiative nationale (IN), afin d’améliorer la sécurité au travail des ouvriers du secteur du prêt-à-porter au Bangladesh, formant une réglementation du travail à plusieurs niveaux, Nous avons mené une recherche qualitative au moyen d’entretiens (N = 41) et de données d’archives afin d’analyser cette réglementation dans le secteur du prêt-à-porter au Bangladesh après l’effondrement du Rana Plaza. Si nos résultats indiquent l’efficacité du flux vertical de la réglementation institutionnelle, ils révèlent également des défis horizontaux importants quant à la mise en oeuvre des initiatives privées parallèlement à l’IN publique en l’absence d’un fondement juridique pour la réglementation internationale du travail. Ces résultats aideront à comprendre les dynamiques de pouvoir impliquée dans la négociation de réglementations internationales.
Mots clés:
- Bangladesh,
- Industrie du prêt à porter,
- réglementation internationale du travail,
- gouvernance multi-niveaux,
- sécurité des travailleurs,
- étude qualitative
Appendices
References
- Accord (2018) Quarterly Aggregate Report on Remediation Progress at RMG Factories Covered by the Accord. Retrieved from : https://bangladesh.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Accord_Quarterly_Aggregate_Report_April_2018.pdf, (September 18th, 2018).
- Ales, Edoardo, and Anne Dufresne (2012) “Transnational Collective Bargaining : Another (Problematic) Fragment of the European Multi-Level Industrial Relations System.” European Journal of Industrial Relations, 18(2), 95-105.
- Alliance for Bangladesh Work Safety (2017, November) Dawn of a New Era in Safety : Accelerating Progress in the Alliance’s Final Year. Retrieved from : http://www.bangladeshworkersafety.org/files/Alliance%20Fourth%20Annual%20Report%20-%202017.pdf, (September 18th, 2018).
- Amengual, Matthew, and Laura Chirot (2016) “Reinforcing the State : Transnational and State Labor Regulation in Indonesia.” International Labour Review, 69(5), 1056-1080.
- Anner, Mark, and Jennifer Bair (2016) The Bulk of the Iceberg : A Critique of the Stern Center’s Report on Worker Safety in Bangladesh. State College, PA : Center for Global Workers’ Rights. Retrieved from : http://lser.la.psu.edu/gwr/documents/CGWRCritiqueofSternReport.pdf, (September 20th, 2018).
- Bair, Jennifer, Mark Anner, and Jeremy Blasi (2020) “The Political Economy of Private and Public Regulation in Post-Rana Plaza Bangladesh.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 73(4), 969-994.
- Bair, Jennifer, Doug Miller, and Marsha Dickson (eds.) (2014) Workers’ Rights and Labor Compliance in Global Supply Chains : Is a Social Label the Answer ? New York : Routledge.
- Barrientos, Stephanie, Frederick Mayer, John Pickles, and Anne Posthuma (2011) “Decent Work in Global Production Networks : Framing the Policy Debate.” International Labour Review 150(3-4), 297-317.
- Bartley, Tim. (2011) “Mapping the Hard and Soft Law Terrain : Labor Rights and Environmental Protection : Transnational Governance as the Layering of Rules : Intersections of Public and Private Standards.” Theoretical Inquiries in Law, 12(2), 517-665.
- Boyatzis, Richard E. (1998) Transforming Qualitative Information : Thematic Analysis and Code Development. Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
- Crouch, Colin (2011) The Strange Non-Death of Neo-Liberalism. Cambridge : Polity.
- Department of Inspection for Factories and Establishments (DIFE) (2018) Status of Factory Inspection and Remediation. Retrieved from : http://www.dife.gov.bd/, (July 7th, 2018).
- Donaghey, Jimmy, and Juliane Reinecke (2018) “When Industrial Democracy Meets Corporate Social Responsibility : A Comparison of the Bangladesh Accord and Alliance as Responses to the Rana Plaza Disaster.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 56(1), 14-42.
- Donaghey, Jimmy, Juliane Reinecke, Christina Niforou, and Benn Lawson (2014) “From Employment Relations to Consumption Relations : Balancing Labor Governance in Global Supply Chains.” Human Resource Management, 53(2), 229-252.
- Egels-Zandén, Niklas, and Jeroen Merk (2014) “Private Regulation and Trade Union Rights : Why Codes of Conduct Have Limited Impact on Trade Union Rights.” Journal of Business Ethics, 123(3), 461-473.
- European Commission (2018) Note : EU Commissioner for Trade Cecilia Malmström Attended the Meeting of the Bangladesh Sustainability Compact in Brussels. Retrieved from : http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2018/july/tradoc_157109.pdf, (October 5th, 2018).
- Fine, Janice, and Tim Bartley (2019) “Raising the Floor : New Directions in Public and Private Enforcement of Labor Standards in the United States.” Journal of Industrial Relations, 61(2), 252-276.
- Helfen, Markus, and Michael Fichter (2013) “Building Transnational Union Networks Across Global Production Networks : Conceptualising a New Arena of Labour-Management Relations.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 51(3), 553-576.
- Josserand, Emmanuel, and Sarah Kaine (2016) “Labour Standards in Global Value Chains : Disentangling Workers’ Voice, Vicarious Voice, Power Relations, and Regulation.” Relations Industrielles/Industrial Relations, 71(4), 741-767.
- Keune, Maarten, and Paul Marginson (2013) “Transnational Industrial Relations as Multi-Level Governance : Interdependencies in European Social Dialogue.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 51(3), 473-497.
- Khan, Sardana Islam, Timothy Bartram, Jillian Cavanagh, Md Sajjad Hossain, and Silvia Akter (2018) “‘Decent Work’ in the Ready-Made Garment Sector in Bangladesh : The Role for Ethical Human Resource Management, Trade Unions and Situated Moral Agency.” Personnel Review, 48(1), 40–55.
- Labowitz, Sarah, and Dorothee Baumann-Pauly (2015) “Beyond the Tip of the Iceberg : Bangladesh’s Forgotten Apparel Workers.” NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, Leonard N. Stern School of Business. Retrieved from : https://www.dropbox.com/sh/1dgl5tfeouvk0va/AADXiOywX4qW3AXpVEkbLhJWa?d, (July 11th, 2018).
- Locke, Richard M., Ben A. Rissing, and Timea Pal (2013) “Complements or Substitutes ? Private Codes, State Regulation and the Enforcement of Labour Standards in Global Supply Chains.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 51(3), 519-552.
- Lund-Thomsen, Peter, and Adam Lindgreen (2014) “Corporate Social Responsibility in Global Value Chains : Where are we Now and Where are we Going ?” Journal of Business Ethics, 123(1), 11-22.
- Marginson, Paul (2016) “Governing Work and Employment Relations in an Internationalized Economy : The Institutional Challenge.” International Labour Review, 69(5), 1033-1055.
- Marks, G. W., and E. A. E. B Hooghe (2004) “Contrasting Visions of Multi-Level Governance.” In Ian Bache and Matthew Flinders (eds.), Multi-Level Governance. Oxford : Oxford University Press, pp. 15-30.
- Meardi, Guglielmo, and Paul Marginson (2014) “Global Labour Governance : Potential and Limits of an Emerging Perspective.” Work, Employment and Society, 28(4), 651-662.
- Morris, Jonathan, Jean Jenkins, and Jimmy Donaghey (2020) “Uneven Development, Uneven Response : The Relentless Search for Meaningful Regulation of GVCs.” British Journal of Industrial Relations, 59(1), 3-24.
- Peetz, David (2021) “Institutional Experimentation, Directed Devolution and the Search for Policy Innovation.” Relations industrielles/Industrial Relations, 76(1), 69-89.
- Pike, Kelly (2020) “Voice in Supply Chains : Does the Better Work Program Lead to Improvements in Labor Standards Compliance ?” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 73(4), 913-938.
- Realty Check (2018, December 31) “Bangladesh Clothing Factories : Are They Safe Now ?” BBC News. Retrieved from : https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-46349947, (January 20th, 2019).
- Regalia, Ida (2006) Regulating New Forms of Employment. London : Routledge.
- Reinecke, Juliane, and Jimmy Donaghey (2015) “After Rana Plaza : Building Coalitional Power for Labour Rights Between Unions and (Consumption-Based) Social Movement Organisations.” Organization, 22(5), 720-740.
- Reinecke, Juliane, and Jimmy Donaghey (2021a) “Political CSR at the Coalface—The Roles and Contradictions of Multinational Corporations in Developing Workplace Dialogue.” Journal of Management Studies, 58(2), 457-486.
- Reinecke, Juliane, and Jimmy Donaghey (2021b) “Towards Worker-Driven Supply Chain Governance : Developing Decent Work Through Democratic Worker Participation.” Journal of Supply Chain Management, 57(2), 14-28.
- Reinecke, Juliane, Jimmy Donaghey, Adrian Wilkinson, and Geoffrey Wood (2018) “Global Supply Chains and Social Relations at Work : Brokering Across Boundaries.” Human Relations, 71(4), 459-480.
- Scheper, Christian (2017) “Labour Networks Under Supply Chain Capitalism : The Politics of the Bangladesh Accord.” Development and Change, 48(5), 1069-1088.
- Strauss, Anselm, and Juliet Corbin (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research : Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
- Suddaby, Roy (2006) “From the Editors : What Grounded Theory is Not.” Academy of Management Journal, 49(4), 633-642.
- UNI Global Union (2019, April 24) “Six Years After Rana Plaza : Remembering What was Lost and Protecting the Progress that Has Been Made.” News. Retrieved from : www.unigloba-lunion.org/news/six-years-after-rana-plaza-remembering-what-was-lost-and-protecting-pro-gress-has-been-made, (August 6th, 2021).
- Vogt, Jeffrey S. (2017) “The Bangladesh Sustainability Compact : An Effective Tool for Promoting Workers’ Rights ?” Politics and Governance, 5(4), 80-92.
- Walters, David, Philip James, Helen Sampson, Syamantak Bhattacharya, Conghua Xue, and Emma Wadsworth (2016) “Supply Chain Leverage and Regulating Health and Safety Management in Shipping.” Relations industrielles/Industrial Relations, 71(1), 33-56.
- World Bank (2017, June 1) World Bank Helps Bangladesh Diversify Exports and Create 90,000 new Jobs. Press release. Retrieved from : http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2017/06/01/world-bank-helps-bangladesh-diversify-exports-andcreate-90000-new-jobs, (October 6th, 2018).
- Yardley, Jim (2013, July 24) “Garment Trade Wields Power in Bangladesh.” New York Times. Retrieved from : http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/25/world/asia/garment-trade-wields-power-in-bangladesh.html, (October 6th, 2018).