Abstracts
Summary
Subjective career success reflects an individual’s internal apprehension and evaluation of his or her career, across any dimensions that are perceived relevant by the individual. It has beneficial consequences on several individual and organizational outcomes, such as job performance, employee commitment, occupational retention as well as organizational retention. Given the pervasive result that women are subjected to gender discrimination in the workplace, we first wanted to check whether the level of perceived discrimination they report having faced is related to their subjective career success. We also wanted to check whether individual priorities, as evidenced in the concept of career anchor, have an influence on the relationship between perceived discrimination and career success.
Using a sample of 300 women employees working in a large French company, we therefore investigated the relationship between perceived gender discrimination, subjective career success and career anchors. We found that perceived gender discrimination was negatively related to subjective career success overall. However, the relationship between the two variables was moderated by career anchors. Some anchors (i.e. managerial, technical and lifestyle) enhanced the impact of perceived gender discrimination, while other anchors (i.e. security and autonomy) lessened it.
Our results show how individual expectations, reflected in the notion of career anchor, have an influence on how the work environment is interpreted. In addition, they provide a potential explanation for the apparently contradictory findings of the literature on gender and career success. Finally, our results suggest that organizations should pay special attention not only to the work experiences of women who aspire to move up the hierarchy, but also to the women who aspire to achieve a high level of competency at their job, or seek balance between their work life and their home life.
Keywords:
- equal treatment,
- perceptions,
- women,
- career expectations,
- professional achievement
Résumé
Le succès de carrière subjectif reflète l’évaluation globale par un individu de sa carrière en utilisant pour ce faire différents critères qu’il juge pertinents. Il a des conséquences bénéfiques sur plusieurs phénomènes individuels et organisationnels, tels que la performance, l’engagement au travail, le maintien dans la profession ou la fidélisation organisationnelle. Face au constat largement répandu que les femmes sont sujettes à de la discrimination au travail, la présente recherche a pour objectif d’étudier s’il existe une relation entre la discrimination sexuelle perçue et le succès de carrière subjectif. Elle s’attache également à vérifier si les priorités individuelles, telles qu’elles se manifestent dans la notion d’ancre de carrière, ont une influence sur la relation entre la discrimination et le succès de carrière perçus.
En nous appuyant sur un échantillon de 300 femmes employées dans une grande entreprise française, nous montrons ainsi qu’il existe un lien négatif entre la discrimination sexuelle perçue et le succès de carrière subjectif. Toutefois la relation qui existe entre ces deux variables est modérée par les ancres de carrière. Certaines ancres (à savoir, les ancres management, technique, et qualité de vie) renforcent l’effet de la discrimination perçue, alors que d’autres la réduisent (à savoir, les ancres sécurité et autonomie).
Ces résultats montrent comment les attentes individuelles, telles que reflétées dans les ancres de carrière, ont une influence sur la manière dont l’environnement de travail est interprété. D’autre part, ils fournissent une explication possible aux résultats apparemment contradictoires de la littérature sur le genre et le succès de carrière. Enfin, ils suggèrent que les entreprises devraient non seulement prêter attention au développement de carrière des femmes qui aspirent à progresser dans la hiérarchie managériale, mais également à celui de celles qui cherchent à atteindre un niveau d’expertise élevé dans leur travail ou à préserver un équilibre entre leur vie professionnelle et personnelle.
Mots-clés :
- égalité de traitement,
- perceptions,
- femmes,
- attentes de carrière,
- réussite professionnelle
Resumen
El éxito subjetivo de carrera refleja la evaluación global de un individuo sobre su carrera utilizando para ello diferentes criterios que el juzga pertinentes. Esto tiene consecuencias benéficas sobre varios fenómenos individuales y organizacionales tales como el rendimiento, la implicación en el trabajo, el mantenimiento en la profesión o la fidelidad organizacional. Dada la observación ampliamente difundida que las mujeres son sujetas a la discriminación laboral, la presente investigación tiene como objetivo de estudiar si existe una relación entre la discriminación sexual percibida y el éxito profesional percibido. Se propone de verificar igualmente si las prioridades individuales, tales como se manifiestan en la noción de anclaje de carrera, tienen una influencia en la relación entre la percepción de discriminación y el éxito percibido de carrera.
Con una muestra de 300 empleadas mujeres de una gran empresa francesa, se constata que existe un vínculo negativo entre la discriminación sexual percibida y el éxito percibido de carrera. Sin embargo, la relación que existe entre las dos variables es moderada por los anclajes de carrera. Ciertos anclajes (esto es, los anclajes de gestión, técnicos y de calidad de vida) refuerzan el efecto de la discriminación percibida mientras que otros la reducen (esto es, los anclajes de seguridad y de autonomía).
Estos resultados muestran cómo las expectativas individuales, tal que reflejadas en los anclajes de carrera, tienen una influencia sobre la manera de interpretar el ambiente de trabajo. De otro lado, se provee una explicación posible a los resultados aparentemente contradictorios de los escritos científicos sobre el género y el éxito de carrera. Para terminar, se sugiere que las empresas deberían poner atención al desarrollo de carrera de las mujeres que aspiran a progresas en la jerarquía de dirección pero también al de aquellas que quieren alcanzar un nivel de experiencia elevada en su trabajo o preservar un equilibrio entre vida profesional y personal.
Palabras clave:
- igualdad de trato,
- percepciones,
- mujeres,
- expectativas de carrera,
- éxito profesional
Appendices
References
- Abele, A. E. and D. Spurk. 2009. “How Do Objective and Subjective Career Success Interrelate over Time?” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82 (4), 803-824.
- Aiken, L. S. and S. G. West. 1991. Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Newbury Park: Sage.
- Armstrong-Stassen, M. and N. D. Ursel. 2009. “Perceived Organizational Support, Career Satisfaction, and the Retention of Older Workers.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82 (1), 201-220.
- Arthur, M. B. and D. M. Rousseau. 1996. The Boundaryless Career. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Arthur, M. B., D. T. Hall and B. S. Lawrence. 1989. Handbook of Career Theory. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Arthur, M. B., S. N. Khapova and C. P. M. Wilderom. 2005. “Career Success in a Boundaryless Career World.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26 (2), 177-202.
- Baruch, Y. 2004. Managing Careers: Theory and Practice. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
- Cabrera, E. F. 2009. “Protean Organizations: Reshaping Work and Careers to Retain Female Talent.” Career Development International, 14 (2), 186-192.
- Crompton, R. and C. Lyonette. 2011. “Women’s Career Success and Work-life Adaptations in the Accountancy and Medical Professions in Britain.” Gender, Work and Organization, 18 (2), 231-254.
- Danziger, N. and R. Valency. 2006. “Career Anchors: Distribution and Impact on Job Satisfaction, the Israeli Case.” Career Development International, 11 (4), 293-303.
- Delong, T. 1982. “The Career Orientations of MBA Alumni: A Multidimensional Model.” Career Issues in Human Resource Management. R. Katz, ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 50-64.
- Derr, C. B. 1986. “Five Definitions of Career Success: Implications for Relationships.” International Applied Psychology, 35 (3), 415-434.
- Dyke, L. S. and S. A. Murphy. 2006. “How We Define Success: A Qualitative Study of What Matters Most to Women and Men.” Sex Roles, 55 (5/6), 357-371.
- Elkins, T. J., J. S. Phillips and R. Konopaske. 2002. “Gender-Related Biases in Evaluations of Sex Discrimination Allegations: Is Perceived Threat the Key?” Journal of Applied Psychology, 87 (2), 280-292.
- Erdogan, B., M. L. Kraimer and R. C. Liden. 2004. “Work Value Congruence and Intrinsic Career Success: The Compensatory Roles of Leader-Member Exchange and Perceived Organizational Support.” Personnel Psychology, 57 (2), 305-332.
- Evans, M. G. 1985. “A Monte Carlo Study of the Effects of Correlated Method Variance in Moderated Multiple Regression Analysis.” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 36 (3), 305-323.
- Feldman, D. C. and M. C. Bolino. 1996. “Careers within Careers: Reconceptualizing the Nature of Career Anchors and their Consequences.” Human Resource Management Review, 6 (2), 89-112.
- Foley, S., N. Huang-Yue and A. Wong. 2005. “Perceptions of Discrimination and Justice: Are there Gender Differences in Outcomes?” Group and Organization Management, 30 (4), 421-450.
- Goldman, B. M., J. E. Slaughter, M. J. Schmit, J. W. Wiley and S. M. Brooks. 2008. “Perceptions of Discrimination: A Multiple-Needs Model Perspective.” Journal of Management, 34 (5), 952-977.
- Gregory, A. and S. Milner. 2009. “Editorial: Work-Life Balance: A Matter of Choice?” Gender, Work and Organizations, 16 (1), 1-13.
- Gresy, B. 2009. Rapport préparatoire à la concertation avec les partenaires sociaux sur l’égalité professionnelle entre les femmes et les hommes. Ministère du Travail : http://www.travail-emploi-sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport_egalite8-07-09.pdf.
- Guillaume, C. and S. Pochic. 2009. “What Would You Sacrifice? Access to Top Management and the Work-Life Balance.” Gender, Work and Organizations, 16 (1), 14-36.
- Hall, D. T. 2002. Careers In and Out of Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Heslin, P. A. 2003. “Self- and Other-Referent Criteria of Career Success.” Journal of Career Assessment, 11 (3), 262-286.
- Hu, L. and P. M. Bentler. 1999. “Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives.” Structural Equation Modeling, 6 (1), 1-55.
- Igbaria, M. 1991. “Job Performance of MIS Professionals: An Examination of the Antecedents and Consequences.” Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 8 (2), 141-171.
- Khapova, S. N., M. B. Arthur and C. P. M. Wilderom. 2006. “The Subjective Career in the Knowledge Economy.” Handbook of Career Studies. H. Gunz and M. Peiperl, eds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 114-130.
- Kirchmeyer, C. 1998. “Determinants of Managerial Career Success: Evidence and Explanation of Male/Female Differences.” Journal of Management, 24 (6), 673-692.
- Kulich, C., G. Trojanowski, M. K. Ryan, S. A. Haslam and L. Renneboog. 2011. “Who Gets the Carrot and Who Gets the Stick? Evidence of Gender Disparities in Executive Remuneration.” Strategic Management Journal, 32 (3), 301-321.
- Liff, S. and K. Ward. 2001. “Distorted Views through the Glass Ceiling: The Construction of Women’s Understandings of Promotion and Senior Management Positions.” Gender, Work and Organizations, 8 (1), 19-36.
- Martineau, Y., T. Wils and M. Tremblay. 2005. “La multiplicité des ancres de carrière chez les ingénieurs québécois: impact sur les cheminements et le succès de carrière.” Relations Industrielles / Industrial Relations, 60 (3), 455-482.
- Melamed, T. 1995. “Barriers to Women’s Career Success: Human Capital, Career Choices, Structural Determinants, or Simply Sex Discrimination.” Applied Psychology, 44 (4), 295-314.
- Metz, I. and P. Tharenou. 2001. “Women’s Career Advancement: The Relative Contribution of Human and Social Capital.” Group and Organization Management, 26 (3), 312-342.
- Metz, I. and S. Moss. 2008. “Workplace Gender Discrimination: Do Women Over-Attribute Slow Advancement in Management to Gender Discrimination?” The Melbourne Review, 4 (2), 60-66.
- Ng, T. W., L. T. Eby, K. L. Sorensen and D. C. Feldman. 2005. “Predictors of Objective and Subjective Career Success: A Meta-Analysis.” Personnel Psychology, 58 (2), 367-408.
- Nicholson, N. and W. de Waal-Andrews. 2005. “Playing to Win: Biological Imperatives, Self-Regulation, and Trade-Offs in the Game of Career Success.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26 (2), 137-154.
- Pachulicz, S., N. Schmitt and G. Kuljanin. 2008. “A Model of Career Success: A Longitudinal Study of Emergency Physicians.” Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73 (2), 242-253.
- Petriglieri, J. L. 2011. “Under Threat: Responses to and the Consequences of Threats to Individual Identities.” Academy of Management Review, 36 (4), 641-662.
- Podsakoff, P. M., S. B. MacKenzie, J. Y. Lee and N. P. Podsakoff. 2003. “Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 88 (5), 879-903.
- Schein, E. H. 1978. Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
- Schein, E. H. 1990. Career Anchors: Discovering Your Real Values. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
- Seibert, S. E., J. M. Crant and M. L. Kraimer. 1999. “Proactive Personality and Career Success.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 84 (3), 416-427.
- Siemsen, E., A. Roth and P. Oliveira. 2010. “Common Method Bias in Regression Models with Linear, Quadratic, and Interaction Effects.” Organizational Research Methods, 13 (3), 456-476.
- Sturges, J. 1999. “What it Means to Succeed: Personal Conceptions of Career Success Held by Male and Female Managers at Different Ages.” British Journal of Management, 10 (3), 239-252.
- Tice, D. M. and H. M. Wallace. 2003. “The Reflected Self: Creating Yourself as you Think Others See You.” Handbook of Self and Identity. M. R. Leary and J. P. Tangney, eds. New York: Guilford Press, 91-105.
- Turban, D. B. and T. W. Dougherty. 1994. “Role of Protégé Personality in Receipt of Mentoring and Career Success.” Academy of Management Journal, 37 (3), 688-702.
- Valcour, M. and J. J. Ladge. 2008. “Family and Career Path Characteristics as Predictors of Women’s Objective and Subjective Career Success: Integrating Traditional and Protean Career Explanations.” Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73 (2), 300-309.
- Van Vianen, A. E. M. and A. H. Fischer. 2002. “Illuminating the Glass Ceiling.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75 (3), 315-337.
- Williams, L. J., J. A. Cote and M. R. Buckley. 1989. “Lack of Method Variance in Self-Reported Affect and Perceptions at Work: Reality or Artifact?” Journal of Applied Psychology, 74 (3), 462-468.
- Yap, M. and A. M. Konrad. 2009. “Gender and Racial Differentials in Promotions: Is There a Sticky Floor, a Mid-Level Bottleneck, or a Glass Ceiling.” Relations Industrielles / Industrial Relations, 64 (4), 593-619.
- Yap, M., W. Cukier, M. R. Holmes and C. A. Hannan. 2010. “Career Satisfaction: A Look behind the Races.” Relations Industrielles / Industrial Relations, 65 (4), 584-608.