Abstracts
Résumé
Les PME constituent un élément moteur de l’activité économique des territoires où elles sont établies. Le bon fonctionnement et la performance des PME dépendent entre autres des capacités mentales et physiques de leur promoteur, les entrepreneurs. L’émergence de la Covid-19 aussi subite qu’imprévue a remis en cause le fonctionnement normal de la plupart des économies à travers le monde. Ce contexte sans précédent se caractérise par des effets sur les individus et dans diverses sphères de la vie économique. Nous nous intéressons dans cette étude à l’impact de la Covid-19 sur la santé mentale des entrepreneurs en Afrique. À cet effet, des données ont été collectées auprès de 158 entrepreneurs exerçant sur ce continent au début de la pandémie. Les analyses réalisées montrent que plusieurs d’entre eux ont fait l’expérience de différents symptômes de détresse psychologique à la suite des conséquences de la pandémie sur leurs entreprises. Les caractéristiques et les ressources personnelles (âge, expérience) ainsi que celles de l’entreprise (stade de développement, taille de l’entreprise) contribuent toutefois à tracer un portrait contrasté de la détresse psychologique chez les entrepreneurs en Afrique.
Mots-clés:
- Entrepreneurs,
- Détresse psychologique,
- Covid-19,
- Santé mentale,
- PME
Abstract
SMEs are the driving force behind every country’s economic activity. The proper functioning and performance of SMEs depends on the mental and physical capacities of their promoters, the entrepreneurs. The emergence of the Covid-19 as sudden as it was unforeseen has challenged the normal functioning of most economies around the world. This unprecedented context has affected various spheres of economic life and on individuals. In this study, we focus on the impact of Covid-19 on the mental health of entrepreneurs in Africa. We collected data from 158 entrepreneurs from various parts of Africa at the beginning of the pandemic. The analyses show that several of them experienced various symptoms of psychological distress because of the consequences of the pandemic on their businesses and, we observed differences among entrepreneurs. Personal characteristics and resources (age, experience) and enterprise characteristics contribute to the contrasting picture of psychological distress among entrepreneurs in Africa.
Keywords:
- Entrepreneurs,
- Psychological distress,
- Covid-19,
- Mental health,
- SMEs
Resumen
Las PyME son un motor de la actividad económica en los territorios donde están establecidas. El buen funcionamiento y los resultados de las PyME dependen, entre otras cosas, de las capacidades mentales y físicas de sus promotores, los empresarios. La aparición del Covid-19, tan repentina como inesperada, ha puesto en entredicho el funcionamiento normal de la mayoría de las economías del mundo. Este contexto sin precedentes se caracteriza por sus efectos en diversas esferas de la vida económica y en los individuos. En este estudio, nos interesamos por el impacto de Covid-19 en la salud mental de los empresarios de África. Para ello, se recogieron datos de 158 empresarios de diversas regiones de África al comienzo de la pandemia. Los análisis realizados muestran que varios de ellos experimentaron diversos síntomas de angustia psicológica a raíz de las consecuencias de la pandemia en sus empresas, y que existen diferencias entre los empresarios. Las características y los recursos personales (edad, experiencia), así como las características y los recursos de la empresa (etapa de desarrollo, tamaño de la empresa) contribuyen a la imagen contrastada de la angustia psicológica entre los empresarios en África.
Palabras clave:
- Empresarios,
- Malestar psicológico,
- Covid-19,
- Salud mental,
- PyME
Appendices
Références
- Annink, A., Gorgievski, M. et Den Dulk, L. (2016). Financial hardship and well-being : a cross-national comparison among the European self-employed. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 25(5), 645-657.
- Asante, E.A. et Affum-Osei, E. (2019). Entrepreneurship as a career choice : the impact of locus of control on aspiring entrepreneurs’ opportunity recognition. Journal of Business Research, 98, 227-235.
- Auda-Nepad (2019). African innovation outlook III. Récupéré le 21 février 2021 sur le site : https://au.int/en/documents/20200213african-Innovation-outlook-iii.
- Auerbach, R.P., Mortier, P., Bruffaerts, R., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Cuijpers, P. et Hasking, P. (2018). Who world mental health surveys international college student project : prevalence and distribution of mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(7), 623.
- Awotoye, Y. et Singh, R.P. (2017). Entrepreneurial resilience, high impact challenges, and firm performance. Journal of Management Policy and Practice, 18(2), 28-37.
- Bouguettaya, A., Yu, Q., Liu, X., Zhou, X. et Song, A. (2015). Efficient agglomerative hierarchical clustering. Expert Systems with Applications, 42(5), 2785-2797.
- Boyd, D.P. et Gumpert, D.E. (1983). Coping with entrepreneurial stress. Harvard Business Review, 61(2), 44-63.
- Brown, R. et Rocha, A. (2020). Entrepreneurial uncertainty during the Covid-19 crisis : mapping the temporal dynamics of entrepreneurial finance. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 14, 1-10.
- Brusco, M.J., Singh, R., Cradit, J.D. et Steinley, D. (2017). Cluster analysis in empirical OM research : survey and recommendations. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 37(3), 300-320.
- Caron, J. et Liu, A. (2011). Factors associated with psychological distress in the Canadian population : a comparison of low-income and non low-income sub-groups. Community Mental Health Journal, 47(3), 318-330.
- Chadwick, I.C. et Raver, J.L. (2019). Not for the faint of heart ? A gendered perspective on psychological distress in entrepreneurship. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 24(6), 662.
- Chadwick, I.C. et Raver, J.L. (2020). Psychological resilience and its downstream effects for business survival in nascent entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44(2), 233-255.
- CIEA (2019). Actes de la 3e édition de la Conférence internationale sur l’émergence de l’Afrique. Dakar, Sénégal, 17-19 février.
- Cocker, F., Martin, A., Scott, J., Venn, A. et Sanderson, K. (2013). Psychological distress, related work attendance, and productivity loss in small-to-medium enterprise owner/managers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(10), 5062-5082.
- Dawkins, S., Martin, A., Kilpatrick, M. et Scott, J. (2018). Reasons for engagement : SME owner-manager motivations for engaging in a workplace mental health and wellbeing intervention. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60(10), 917-927.
- Drapeau, A., Marchand, A. et Beaulieu-Prévost, D. (2011). Epidemiology of psychological distress. Dans L. L’Abate (dir.), Mental illnesses-understanding, prediction and control (p. 105-134). Londres, Royaume-Uni, Intech Open Access Publisher.
- Encrenaz, G., Laberon, S., Lagabrielle, C., Debruyne, G., Pouyaud, J. et Rascle, N. (2019). Psychosocial risks in small enterprises : the mediating role of perceived working conditions in the relationship between enterprise size and workers’ anxious or depressive episodes. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 25(3), 485-494.
- Ensminger, M.E. et Celentano, D.D. (1990). Gender differences in the effect of unemployment on psychological distress. Social Science & Medicine, 30(4), 469-477.
- Etikan, I., Musa, S.A. et Alkassim, R.S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4.
- Farrington, S.M. (2017). Psychological well-being and perceived financial performance : an SME perspective. South African Journal of Business Management, 48(4), 47-56.
- Freeman, M.A., Staudenmaier, P.J., Zisser, M.R. et Andresen, L.A. (2019). The prevalence and co-occurrence of psychiatric conditions among entrepreneurs and their families. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 323-342.
- Gunia, B.C. (2018). The sleep trap : do sleep problems prompt entrepreneurial motives but undermine entrepreneurial means ? Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(2), 228-242.
- Halbesleben, J.R.B. et Wheeler, A.R. (2007). The costs and benefits of working with those you love : a demand/resource perspective on working with family. Dans P.L. Perrewé et D.C. Ganster (dir.), Exploring the work and non-work interface (p. 115-163). Bingley, Royaume-Uni, Emerald Publishing Limited.
- Hessels, J., Rietveld, C.A. et van der Zwan, P. (2017). Self-employment and work-related stress : the mediating role of job control and job demand. Journal of Business Venturing, 32(2), 178-196.
- Hobfoll, S.E. (1989). Conservation of resources : a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513.
- Holmgreen, L., Tirone, V., Gerhart, J. et Hobfoll, S.E. (2017). Conservation of resources theory. Dans C.L. Cooper et J.C. Quick (dir.), The handbook of stress and health : a guide to research and practice (p. 443-457). Chichester, Royaume-Uni, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
- Jiang, M.-F., Tseng, S.-S. et Su, C.-M. (2001). Two-phase clustering process for outliers detection. Pattern recognition letters, 22(6-7), 691-700.
- Kallioniemi, M.K., Simola, A., Kaseva, J. et Kymäläinen, H.-R. (2016). Stress and burnout among Finnish dairy farmers. Journal of Agromedicine, 21(3), 259-268.
- Kar, S.K., Oyetunji, T.P., Prakash, A.J., Ogunmola, O.A., Tripathy, S., Lawal, M.M. et Arafat, S.Y. (2020). Mental health research in the lower-middle-income countries of Africa and Asia during the Covid-19 pandemic : a scoping review. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research, 38, 54-64.
- King, R.S. (2015). Cluster analysis and data mining : an introduction. Sterling, Stylus Publishing LLC.
- Kollmann, T., Stöckmann, C. et Kensbock, J.M. (2019). I can’t get no sleep. The differential impact of entrepreneurial stressors on work-home interference and insomnia among experienced versus novice entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 34(4), 692-708.
- Kovács, J., Kovács, S., Magyar, N., Tanos, P., Hatvani, I.G. et Anda, A. (2014). Classification into homogeneous groups using combined cluster and discriminant analysis. Environmental Modelling & Software, 57, 52-59.
- Kuckertz, A., Brändle, L., Gaudig, A., Hinderer, S., Reyes, C.A.M., Prochotta, A. et Berger, E.S. (2020). Start-up in times of crisis. A rapid response to the Covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 13, 1-13.
- Lechat, T. et Torrès, O. (2016). Les risques psychosociaux du dirigeant de PME : typologie et échelle de mesure des stresseurs professionnels. Revue internationale PME, 29(3-4), 135-159.
- LePine, J.A., Podsakoff, N.P. et LePine, M.A. (2005). A meta-analytic test of the challenge stressor-hindrance stressor framework : an explanation for inconsistent relationships among stressors and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48(5), 764-775.
- Lerman, M.P., Munyon, T.P. et Williams, D.W. (2020). The (not so) dark side of entrepreneurship : a meta‐analysis of the well‐being and performance consequences of entrepreneurial stress. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 1-26.
- Longest, K.C. et Thoits, P.A. (2012). Gender, the stress process, and health : a configurational approach. Society and Mental Health, 2(3), 187-206.
- Luthans, F., Avey, J.B., Avolio, B.J. et Peterson, S.J. (2010). The development and resulting performance impact of positive psychological capital. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 21(1), 41-67.
- Martin, A., Kilpatrick, M., Scott, J., Cocker, F., Dawkins, S., Brough, P. et Sanderson, K. (2020). Protecting the mental health of small-to-medium enterprise owners : a randomized control trial evaluating a self-administered versus telephone supported intervention. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(7), 503.
- Massé, R. (2000). Qualitative and quantitative analyses of psychological distress : methodological complementarity and ontological incommensurability. Qualitative Health Research, 10(3), 411-423.
- Mazzola, J.J., Walker, E.J., Shockley, K.M. et Spector, P.E. (2011). Examining stress in graduate assistants : combining qualitative and quantitative survey methods. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 5(3), 198-211.
- Mihic, M.M., Arsic, S.M. et Arsic, M.Z. (2015). Impacts of entrepreneurs’ stress and family members on SMEs’ business success in Serbian family-owned firms. Journal of East European Management Studies, 20(4), 452-483.
- MSSS (2007). Prévention des impacts psychosociaux dans un contexte de pandémie d’influenza. Guide à l’intention des employeurs et travailleurs du Québec. Récupéré le 21 février 2021 sur le site : https://publications.msss.gouv.qc.ca/msss/fichiers/2007/06-235-16.pdf.
- Newlin, A.M.B. (2020). More specific than small : identifying key factors to account for the heterogeneity in stress findings among small businesses. Dans L.P. Pamela, D.H. Peter et C. Chu-Hsiang (dir.), Entrepreneurial and small business stressors, experienced stress, and well-being (p. 95-122). Bingley, Royaume-Uni, Emerald Publishing Limited.
- OMS (2004). Investir dans la santé mentale. Genève, Organisation mondiale de la santé.
- OMS (2013). Plan d’action pour la santé mentale 2013-2020. Genève, Organisation mondiale de la santé.
- Patel, P.C. et Rietveld, C.A. (2020). The impact of financial insecurity on the self-employed’s short-term psychological distress : evidence from the Covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 14, 1-11.
- Podani, J. et Schmera, D. (2006). On dendrogram‐based measures of functional diversity. Oikos, 115(1), 179-185.
- Rahim, A. (1996). Stress, strain, and their moderators : an empirical comparison of entrepreneurs and managers. Journal of Small Business Management, 34(1), 46.
- Rauch, A., Fink, M. et Hatak, I. (2018). Stress processes : an essential ingredient in the entrepreneurial process. Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(3), 340-357.
- Rauch, A. et Frese, M. (2007). Let’s put the person back into entrepreneurship research : a meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners’ personality traits, business creation, and success. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16(4), 353-385.
- Reid, S.W., Patel, P.C. et Wolfe, M.T. (2018). The struggle is real : self-employment and short-term psychological distress. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 9, 128-136.
- Rendón, E., Abundez, I., Arizmendi, A. et Quiroz, E.M. (2011). Internal versus external cluster validation indexes. International Journal of Computers and Communications, 5(1), 27-34.
- Ridner, S.H. (2004). Psychological distress : concept analysis. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45(5), 536-545.
- Robb, C.C., Gandhi, S.J., Lortie, J. et Bell, T. (2019). Entrepreneurial competencies : do entrepreneurs use them more frequently than employees ? American Journal of Entrepreneurship, 12(2), 99-124.
- Ryff, C.D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it ? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069-1081.
- Sankoh, O., Sevalie, S. et Weston, M. (2018). Mental health in Africa. The Lancet Global Health, 6(9), 954-955.
- Saoussany, A. et Asbayou, M. (2019). Le stress professionnel chez l’entrepreneur : ses facteurs et ses incidences. La Revue Internationale des Sciences de Gestion, (2), 424-442.
- Sawilowsky, S.S. (2009). New effect size rules of thumb. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 8(2), 26.
- Shane, S., Locke, E.A. et Collins, C.J. (2003). Entrepreneurial motivation. Human Resource Management Review, 13(2), 257-279.
- Shepherd, D.A. et Patzelt, H. (2011). The new field of sustainable entrepreneurship : studying entrepreneurial action linking « what is to be sustained » with « what is to be developed ». Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35(1), 137-163.
- Srivastava, S. et Bajpai, L. (2020). Linking conservation of resource perspective to personal growth initiative and intention to leave : role of mediating variables. Personnel Review, 50(2), 686-708.
- Steinley, D. et Brusco, M.J. (2011). Choosing the number of clusters in Κ-means clustering. Psychological Methods, 16(3), 285.
- Stephan, U. (2018). Entrepreneurs’ mental health and well-being : a review and research agenda. Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(3), 290-322.
- Surachman, A. et Almeida, D.M. (2018). Stress and coping theory across the adult lifespan. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. Récupéré le 21 février 2021 sur le site : https://oxfordre.com/psychology/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore-9780190236557-e-341.
- Torrès, O. (1999). Les PME. Paris, Flammarion.
- Torrès, O. (2012). La Santé du dirigeant, de la souffrance patronale à l’entrepreneuriat salutaire. Bruxelles, De Boeck.
- Torrès, O. (2015). Petitesse des entreprises et grossissement des effets de proximité. Revue française de gestion, 41(253), 333-352.
- Torrès, O. et Thurik, R. (2019). Small business owners and health. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 311-321.
- Uy, M.A., Foo, M.D. et Song, Z. (2013). Joint effects of prior start-up experience and coping strategies on entrepreneurs’ psychological well-being. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(5), 583-597.
- Wach, D., Stephan, U., Weinberger, E. et Wegge, J. (à paraître). Entrepreneurs’ stressors and well-being : a recovery perspective and diary study. Journal of Business Venturing, 1-21.
- Ward Jr, J.H. (1963). Hierarchical grouping to optimize an objective function. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 58(301), 236-244.
- White Joshua, V. et Gupta Vishal, K. (2020). Stress and well-being in entrepreneurship : a critical review and future research agenda. Dans L.P. Pamela, D.H. Peter et C. Chu-Hsiang (dir.), Entrepreneurial and small business stressors, experienced stress, and well-being (p. 65-93). Bingley, Royaume-Uni, Emerald Publishing Limited.
- Wiklund, J., Hatak, I., Lerner, D.A., Verheul, I., Thurik, R. et Antshel, K. (2020). Entrepreneurship, clinical psychology and mental health : an exciting and promising new field of research. Academy of Management Perspectives, 34(2), 291-295.
- Wiklund, J., Hatak, I., Patzelt, H. et Shepherd, D.A. (2018). Mental disorders in the entrepreneurship context : when being different can be an advantage. Academy of Management Perspectives, 32(2), 182-206.
- Wincent, J. et Örtqvist, D. (2006). Analyzing the structure of entrepreneur role stress. Journal of Business and Entrepreneurship, 18(2), 1-21.
- World Bank (2014). Doing business 2014, understanding regulations for small and medium, size enterprises (11e édition). Washington, World Bank.
- Xu, F., Kellermanns, F.W., Jin, L. et Xi, J. (2020). Family support as social exchange in entrepreneurship : its moderating impact on entrepreneurial stressors-well-being relationships. Journal of Business Research, 120, 59-73.