Abstracts
Abstract
Greenland is in the process of full de-colonization and is moving towards independence as the first Inuit nation-state. This trajectory, which is influenced by a widespread sense of nationhood, appears to set Greenland apart from other Inuit communities in the Arctic. This article investigates the nature and role of understandings of “Greenlandicness” in Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenland), as well as their effects on contemporary nation building and visions for a future independent Greenland. It explores past and current debates about collective identity in Greenland by analysing political discourses as expressed in mass and social media, Inatsisartut debates and official documents, and various statements by politicians, parties, and Naalakkersuisut. The discourse analysis is inspired by Wetherell and Potter’s social psychology approach to identity analysis, including their understanding of “interpretative repertoires” (1988). The article concludes that although Indigeneity remains one source of the perception of the inherent right of the Greenlandic people to self-determination, the stronger current in Greenland politics and collective identification is one of classical (European) nationalism. Further, it finds that a number of discursive repertoires exist, which can be thematically labelled: Kalaallit Indigenous nationalism, pan-Inuit Indigenism, post- and de-colonialism, (post-)modernism, traditionalism, and ethnic and civic nationalism.
Keywords:
- Nation-building,
- nationalism,
- collective identities,
- political discourses,
- indigeneity,
- post-colonialism
Résumé
Le Groenland est en voie de décolonisation complète et se dirige vers l’indépendance en tant que premier État-nation inuit. Cette trajectoire, influencée par un sentiment généralisé d’appartenance à une nation, semble distinguer le Groenland des autres communautés inuit de l’Arctique. Cet article étudie la nature et le rôle des conceptions de la « groenlandité » dans le Kalaallit Nunaat (Groenland), ainsi que leurs effets sur la construction de la nation contemporaine et les visions d’un futur Groenland indépendant. Il explore les débats passés et actuels sur l’identité collective au Groenland en analysant les discours politiques exprimés dans les médias de masse et les médias sociaux, les débats de l’Inatsisartut et les documents officiels, ainsi que diverses déclarations politiques, des partis et du Naalakkersuisut. L’analyse du discours s’inspire de l’approche de la psychologie sociale de Wetherell et Potter concernant l’analyse de l’identité, y compris leur compréhension des « répertoires interprétatifs » (1988). L’article conclut que, bien que l’autochtonie reste l’une des sources de la perception du droit inhérent du peuple groenlandais à l’autodétermination, le nationalisme classique (européen) est le mouvement le plus fort de la politique groenlandaise et de l’identification collective. Par ailleurs, cette étude révèle l’existence d’un certain nombre de répertoires discursifs, qui peuvent être définis par thèmes : le nationalisme autochtone kalaallit, le nationalisme pan-inuit, le post-colonialisme et le décolonialisme, (post)-modernisme, le traditionalisme et le nationalisme ethnique et civique.
Mots-clés :
- Construction de la nation,
- nationalisme,
- identités collectives,
- discours politiques,
- autochtonie,
- post-colonialisme
Appendices
References
- Act of Greenland Self-Government. 2009. www.retsinformation.dk/eli/lta/2009/473.
- Anderson, Benedict. 1983. Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. 2nd ed. London: Verso.
- Annahatak, Betsy. 2014. “Silatuniq: Respectful State of Being in the World.” Études Inuit Studies 38 (1-2): 23–31.
- Berlingske. 2021. “Grønlands mest hårdtslående minister er færdig med rigsfællesskabet: ‘Så sig dog tingene, som de er’ [Greenland’s hardest hitting minister has had enough of the Unity of the Realm: ‘Just tell it like it is’],” 19 Sept. 2021. https://www.berlingske.dk/internationalt/groenlands-mest-haardtslaaende-minister-er-faerdig-med.
- Bjørst, Lill Rastad. 2008. En anden verden: Fordomme og Stereotyper om Grønland og Arktis [Another World: Prejudices and Stereotypes about Greenland and the Arctic]. Copenhagen: BIOS.
- Breum, Martin. 2023. “Aki-Matilda Høegh-Dams tale-grønlandsk-aktion i Folketinget afdækker nye udfordringer for rigsfællesskabet [Aki-Matilda Høegh-Dam’s Greenlandic language action in the Parliament reveals new challenges for the Unity of the Realm],” Martin Breum, 23 May, 2023. https://www.martinbreum.dk/aki-matilda-hoeegh-dams-tale-groenlandsk-aktion-i-folketinget-afdaekker-nye-udfordringer-for-rigsfaellesskabet/.
- Brubaker, Rogers. 1992. Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany. Harvard: Harvard UP.
- Dorais, Louis-Jacques, and Igor Krupnik. 2005. “Preserving Languages and Knowledge of the North.” Études Inuit Studies 29 (1-2): 17–27.
- DR (Radio Denmark). 2021. “Unge grønlændere går forrest i kampen om selvstændighed [Young Greenlanders take the lead in the struggle for independence],” 1 April, 2021. www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/valgigroenland/unge-groenlaendere-gaar-forrest-i-kampen-om-selvstaendighed-debatten.
- DR (Radio Denmark). 2023a. “Hun insisterede på at tale grønlandsk i folketingssalen – og så blev Karsten Hønge sur [She insisted on speaking Greenlandic in Parliament – which upset Karsten Hønge],” 12 May, 2023. www.dr.dk/nyheder/politik/hun-insisterede-paa-tale-groenlandsk-i-folketingssalen-og-saa-blev-karsten-hoenge.
- DR (Radio Denmark). 2023b. “Rebelsk præst vil tale grønlandsk til åbningsdebat i Folketinge [Rebellious priest is going to speak Greenlandic during the opening debate of Parliament],” 16 September, 2023. www.dr.dk/nyheder/politik/rebelsk-praest-vil-tale-groenlandsk-til-aabningsdebat-i-folketinget.
- Fairclough, Norman. 2010. Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. London: Routledge.
- Gad, Ulrik Pram. 2009. “Post-Colonial Identity in Greenland? When the Empire Dichotomizes Back – Bring Politics Back In.” Journal of Language and Politics 8 (1): 136–158.
- Gad, Ulrik Pram. 2017. “What Kind of Nation State will Greenland be? Securitization Theory as a Strategy for Analyzing Identity Politics.” Politik 20 (3): 104–120.
- Gellner, Ernest. 1964. Thought and Change. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
- Gellner, Ernest. 1983. Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Heilmann, Nivé. 2023. “Takilaarpoq, kukkutaqarpoq…” Facebook, October. www.facebook.com/782955236/posts/pfbid021gSUxFKNMCqYPTq8vqN8UEvRiLVBZTmDcrGwk4MMsVTq6Wf1CaSk8RbPA7QoVxYxl/.
- High North News. 2016. “Solid Majority Favours Greenland Independence,” 7 Dec., 2016. www.highnorthnews.com/en/solid-majority-favours-greenland-independence.
- Højsgaard, Lasse. 2023. “Grønlændere er selv blevet som de danske kolonialister [Greenlanders have themselves become like the Danish colonialists].” Forskerforum, February: 22–23.
- ICC. 2009. A Circumpolar Inuit Declaration on Sovereignty in the Arctic. www.inuitcircumpolar.com/icc-international/circumpolar-inuit-declaration-on-arctic-sovereignty/
- Jaber, Lindsey, Cynthia Stirbys, Jesse Scott, and Emma Foong. 2022. “Indigenous Women’s Experiences of Lateral Violence: A Systematic Literature Review.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 24 (3): 1763–1776.
- Jørgensen, Jens Normann. 2010. “Yo! Wha Up Eskimo!” In Cultural and Social Research in Greenland – Selected Essays 1992-2010, edited by K. Langgard, 133–57. Nuuk: Ilisimatusarfik/Atuagkat.
- Kleist Pedersen, Birgit. 2020. “Greenlandic Images and the Post-Colonial: Is it such a Big Deal After All?” In The Postcolonial North Atlantic: Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, 2nd ed., edited by L.-A. Körber and E. Volquardsen, 283–312. Berlin: Nordeuropa-Institut,
- Kohn, Hans. 1994. “Western and Eastern Nationalism.” In Nationalism, edited by J. Hutchinson and A. D. Smith, 162–65. Oxford: Oxford UP.
- KNR (Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa). 2017. “Kalaaleq qanaq ittuua? / What does it mean to be Greenlandic?,” 20 April, 2017. www.youtube.com/watch?v=SHUGM7jizJ8.
- Körber, Lill-Ann, and Ebbe Volquardsen, eds. 2020. “Preface.” In The Postcolonial North Atlantic: Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. 2nd ed., I-VII. Berlin: Nordeuropa-Institut.
- Langgård, Karen. 2011. “Greenlandic Literature from Colonial Times to Self-Government.” In From Oral Tradition to Rap: Literatures of the Polar North, edited by K. Langgård and K. Thisted, 119–187. Thisted: Atuagkat.
- Langgård, Karen. 2014. “Greenlandic Attitudes Towards Norwegians and Danes from Nansen’s Icecap Crossing to the 1933 World Court Verdict in The Hague.” Études Inuit Studies 38 (1-2): 53–71.
- Laugrand, Frédéric. 2014. “Introduction: Inuit Cultures, Governance and Cosmopolitics.” Études Inuit Studies 38 (1-2): 15–21.
- Lund Jensen, Ejnar. 2018. Boplads – udsted – koloni? En undersøgelse af diskussionen i Grønland om bosættelsespolitikken, 1911-1952 [Settlement – Outport – Colony? An Investigation of the Greenlandic Discussion about Settlement Policies, 1911-1952]. Nuuk: Naalakkersuisut/Atuagkat.
- Lynge, Augo. 1931/1989. Ukiut 300-ngornerat [Trehundrede år efter Three Hundred Years Hence]. Translated to Danish by T. Graversen and K. Thisted. Nuuk: Atuakkiorfik.
- Markussen, Ulunnguaq. 2023. “Bagsiden af nation-building: Om spændinger mellem lokal og national empowerment [The flip side of nation building: Tensions between local and national empowerment].” Social Kritik 169: 12–19.
- Naalakkersuisut. 2016. Koalitionsaftale 2016-2018. https://Naalakkersuisut.gl.
- Naalakkersuisut. 2017. Kommissorium for Grønlands Forfatningskommission. https://naalakkersuisut.gl/da/Naalakkersuisut/Departementer/Finans/Forfatningskommision/komissorium.
- Nordjyske. 2023. “Nikolaj vender aldrig tilbage til Grønland: Der er en stemning af fjendskab der lige nu, jeg ikke kan være i [Nikolaj is never going to return to Greenland: There’s a hostile atmosphere there now that I can’t stand],” 30 Sept., 2023.
- Nørtoft, Kamilla, and Amalie Eising Bentholm. 2022. “Kærlighed i Ældrepleje i Grønland [Love in the Greenland eldercare].” Tidsskriftet Antropologi 86: 41–61.
- Nuttall, Mark. 2018. “Self-Determination and Indigenous Governance in the Arctic.” In The Routledge Handbook of the Polar Regions, edited by M. Nuttall, T. R. Christensen, and M. J. Siegert, 67–80. London: Routledge.
- Olsvig, Nikolaj Andersen. 2023. En god blanding / A Good Mix. Odense: Brændpunkt.
- Petersen, Robert. 2001. “On Ethnic Identity in Greenland.” Études Inuit Studies 25 (1-2): 319–328.
- Rud, Søren. 2017. Colonialism in Greenland. Tradition, Governance and Legacy. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series.
- Searles, Edmund Q. 2006. “Anthropology in an Era of Inuit Empowerment.” In Critical Inuit Studies: An Anthology of Contemporary Arctic Ethnography, edited by P. Stern and L. Stevenson, 89–101. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
- Sermitsiaq. 2016. “Massivt flertal for selvstændighed [A massive majority in favour of independence],” 1 Dec., 2016. https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/192275.
- Sermitsiaq. 2021a. “Atassut: Vi har ikke tillid til Broberg [Atassut: We have no confidence in Broberg],” 20 Sept., 2021. https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/232161.
- Sermitsiaq. 2021b. “Jens-Frederik om Pele-udmelding: Det hører Sovjetunionen til [Jens-Frederik about Pele’s statement: It belongs in the Soviet Union],” 20 Sept., 2021. https://sermitsiaq.ag/jens-frederik-pele-udmeldinghoerer-sovjetunionen.
- Sermitsiaq. 2022a. “Ingen hjælp at hente til Nivi Rosing [No assistance for Nivi Rosing],” 28 March, 2022. https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/236257.
- Sermitsiaq. 2022b. “Partier er delte i spørgsmålet om at ændre regler for stemmeret til Inatsisartut [The parties are divided in the question of changed voting rights for local parliament],” 23 Nov., 2022. https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/240997.
- Sermitsiaq. 2023a. “Markus E. Olsen i Folketinget: Vi behandles som fremmede i eget land [Markus E. Olsen in Parliament: We’re treated like strangers in our own country],” 5 Oct., 2023. https://sermitsiaq.
- Sermitsiaq. 2023b. “Aaja Chemnitz: Der er noget helt galt [Aaja Chemnitz: Something’s very wrong],” 6 Oct., 2023. https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/246993.
- Sermitsiaq. 2023c. “Anklager om racisme og uprofessionalitet rammer kvindelandsholdets træner [Women’s national team coach accused of racism and unprofessionalism],” 27 Sept., 2023. https://sermitsiaq.ag/node/246814.
- Sermitsiaq. 2023d. “Nu tidligere landsholdsspiller: Det føles skidt at der ikke er plads til os alle [Former national team player: It feels bad when there isn’t room for all of us],” 11 Oct., 2023. https://sermitsiaq.ag/tidligere-landsholdsspillerfoeles-skidt-ikke-plads.
- Smith, Anthony D. 2009. Ethno-Symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach. London and New York: Routledge.
- Storch, Mathias. 1914/1915. Sinnattugaq [En grønlænders drøm; A Greenlander’s Dream]. Translated to Danish by K. Rasmussen. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.
- Tamir, Yael. 1993. Liberal Nationalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Thisted, Kirsten. 2011. “Nationbuilding – nationbranding: Identitetspositioner og tilhørsforhold under det selvstyrede Grønland [ Nationbuilding – nationbranding: Identity positions in self-governing Greenland].” In Fra vild til verdensborger. Grønlandsk identitet fra kolonitiden til nutidens globalitet [From Savage to World Citizen. Greenlandic Identity from Colonial Times to Present-Day Globality], edited by O. Høiris and O. Marquardt, 597–637. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
- Thisted, Kirsten. 2013. “Discourses of Indigeneity. Branding Greenland in the Age of Self-Government and Climate Change.” In Science, Geopolitics and Culture in the Polar Region – Norden Beyond Borders, edited by S. Sörlin, 227–258. Farnharn: Ashgate.
- Thisted, Kirsten. 2015. “Pioneering Nation: New Narratives About Greenland and Greenlanders Launched Through Arts and Branding.” In The New Arctic, edited by B. Evengård, J. Nymand Larsen, and Ø. Paasche, 23–38. Cham: Springer.
- Thisted, Kirsten. 2017. “The Greenlandic Reconciliation Commission: Ethnonationalism, Arctic Resources, and Post-Colonial Identity.” In Arctic Environmental Modernities from the Age of Polar Exploration to the Era of the Anthropocene, edited by L. Körber, S. MacKenzie, and A. Stenport Westerstahl, 231–246. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Thomsen, Robert C. 2010. Nationalism in Stateless Nations: Selves and Others in Scotland and Newfoundland. Edinburgh: John Donald/Birlinn.
- Thomsen, Robert C. 2021. “‘Three Hundred Years Hence’: Colonialism, Indigeneity, Modernism and Nationalism in the Interpretative Repertoires of the Greenland Hans Egede Statue Debate.” Arctic Yearbook 2021: 1–20.
- Thomsen, Robert C. 2022. “Are Greenlanders Inuit? The Politics of Identity in Greenland.” Polar Journal, 10 Dec. 2022. https://polarjournal.ch/en/2022/12/10/are-greenlanders-inuit-the-politics-of-identity-in-greenland/.
- Thomsen, Robert C., Carina Ren, and Renuka Mahadevan. 2018. “‘We Are the Arctic’: Identities at the Arctic Winter Games 2016.” Arctic Anthropology 55 (1): 105–118.
- Thomsen, Robert C., and Stine P. Vester. 2016. “Towards a Semiotics-Based Typology of Authenticities in Heritage Tourism: Authenticities at Nottingham Castle, UK, and Nuuk Colonial Harbour, Greenland.” Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism 16 (3): 254–273.
- Valgreen, Lisbeth. 2005. “‘Klæder skaber folk’ … gør sprog? [Clothes maketh the man – does language?].” Grønland 53 (2-3): 92–98.
- Visit Greenland. 2023. https://visitgreenland.com/articles/colourful-nuuk-the-city-break-with-a-difference/.
- Wetherell, Margaret. 1998. “Positioning and Interpretative Repertoires: Conversation Analysis and Post-Structuralism in Dialogue.” Discourse & Society 9 (3): 387–412.
- Wetherell, Margaret, and Jonathan Potter. 1988. “Discourse Analysis and the Identification of Interpretative Repertoires.” In Analysing Everyday Explanation: A Casebook of Methods, edited by C. Antaki, 168–83. London: Sage.
- Whyman, Theoni, Karen Adams, Adrian Carter, and Laura Jobson. 2021. “Lateral Violence in Indigenous Peoples.” Australian Psychologist 56 (1): 1–14.
- Žižek, Slavoj. 2008. Violence: Six Sideways Reflections. New York: Picador.