Abstracts
Résumé
Depuis 1945, l’imposition de la démocratie par des forces étrangères a-t-elle été limitée à cinq cas d’exception, comme le prétend Schmitter, ou a-t-elle été à l’origine des deux tiers des démocraties comme le soutient Whitehead ? Cet article propose une définition de l’imposition de la démocratie et analyse 24 des 40 scénarios qui correspondent à cette dernière. Il révèle que l’imposition de la démocratie a été limitée à six cas, si l’on tient compte uniquement des démocraties libérales, et à neuf cas si l’on prend en considération les démocraties libérales et consociationnelles. Ces résultats préliminaires démontrent, d’une part, que l’imposition de la démocratie n’a pas été la règle et que, d’autre part, le point de vue des auteurs sur l’importance des processus d’imposition de la démocratie dépend de leur définition de la démocratie.
Mots-clés:
- démocraties libérales ou consociationnelles,
- gouvernement responsable
Abstract
Since 1945, has the imposition of democracy by foreign powers been limited to five exceptional cases, as claimed by Schmitter, or is it at the origin of the two thirds of democracies as maintained by Whitehead ? This article proposes a definition of the imposition of democracy and analyses 24 of the 40 scenarios of democratization that correspond to this definition. It shows that the imposition of democracy has been limited to 6 cases, if we take into account only liberal democracies, and to 9 cases if we consider liberal and consociational democracies. These preliminary results tend to indicate : that the imposition of democracy has not been the rule; and that the point of view ot the authors about the extent of the imposition of democracy depends on their definition of democracy.
Keywords:
- liberal democracy,
- consociational democracy,
- self-government
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Abbott George, 1981, « The Associated States and the Independence », Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 23, no 1 : 69-94.
- Ahmad Zacharia H., 1989, « Malaysia. Quasi Democracy in a Divided Society », dans L. Diamond, J.J. Linz et S.M. Lipset (dir.), Democracy in Developing Countries. Asia, vol. 3, Boulder, co, Lynne Rienner : 347-383.
- Allen Richard, 1963, « Britain’s Colonial Aftermath in South East Asia », Asian Survey, vol. 3, no 9 : 403-414.
- Almond Gabriel et Sidney Verba, 1965, The Civic Culture. Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. An Analytic Study, Boston, Little Brown.
- American Journal of International Law, 2004, « Coalition Laws and Transition Arrangements during Occupation of Iraq », vol. 98, no 3 : 601-606.
- Apter Daniel, 1968, Some Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Modernization, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall.
- Balfour Michael, 1956, Four-Power Control in Germany and Austria 1945-1946, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
- Ballantine Joseph, 1948, « The New Japan. An American View », Far Eastern Survey, vol. 17, no 24 : 286-288.
- Ballou Richard B., 1952, « American Education and the New Japan », The Journal of Higher Education, vol. 23, no 5 : 229-236.
- Baylies Caroline, 1995, « “Political Conditionality” and Democratization », Review of African Political Economy, no 65 : 321-337.
- Bouissou Jean-Marie, 2007, Le Japon contemporain, Paris, Fayard.
- Broderick Margaret, 1968, « Associated Statehood. A New Form of Decolonization », The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 17, no 2 : 368-403.
- Brown Nathan, 2005a, « Iraq’s Constitutional Conundrum », Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
- Brown, Nathan, 2005b, « Is Political Consensus Possible in Iraq ? », Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Policy Outlook no 23, novembre.
- Burg Steven, 2003, « Coercitive Diplomacy in the Balkans. The us Use of Force in Bosnia and Kosovo », dans R. Art et P.M. Cronin (dir.), The United States and Coercive Diplomacy, Washington, dc, United States Institute for Peace Press : 37-119.
- Burnell Peter, 1994, « Good Government and Democratization. A Sideway Look at Aid and Conditionality », Democratization, vol. 1, no 3 : 485-503.
- Camisar Adriana et al., 2005, « An Analysis of the Dayton Negotiations and Peace Accords », recherche réalisée dans le cadre du cours International Multilateral Negotiation, Medford, ma, Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy.
- Carnell Francis, 1955, « Political Ferment in Singapore », Far Eastern Survey, vol. 24, no 7 : 97-102.
- Carothers Thomas, 2004, « Critical Mission. Essays on Democracy Promotion », Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
- Carothers Thomas, 2007, « How Democracies Emerge. The “Sequencing Fallacy” », Journal of Democracy, vol. 18, no 1 : 1-17.
- Center for Systemic Peace, 2008, Index of Polity, www.systemicpeace.org/polity.
- Coles Kimberley, 2007, Democratic Designs, Ann Harbor, mi, Michigan University Press.
- Cowles Maria Green, James Caporaso et Thomas Risse (dir.), 2001, Transforming Europe, Ithaca, ny, Cornell University Press.
- Dahl Robert, 1971, Polyarchy, Participation and Opposition, New Haven, ct, Yale University Press.
- Danchev Alex et John Macmillan (dir.), 2005, The Iraq War and Democratic Politics, Londres, Routledge.
- Edgerton Robert, 1975, The Politics of Reconstruction in the Philippines, 1945-1948, thèse de doctorat, Ann Arbor, mi, University of Michigan.
- Ermacora Felix, 1970, « La Constitution autrichienne », Corpus constitutionnel, vol. 1, no 2 : 431-451.
- Éthier Diane, 2003, « Is Democracy Promotion Effective ? Comparing Conditionality and Incentives », Democratization, vol. 10, no 1 : 99-121.
- Éthier Diane, 2006, « Promotion de la démocratie dans les Balkans. L’inégale efficacité de la conditionnalité et des incitatifs », Revue canadienne de science politique, vol. 39, no 4 : 803-827.
- Éthier Diane, 2008, « Comment expliquer l’inégale efficacité de la conditionnalité de l’ue en Europe de l’est et du sud-est ? », Transitions, vol. 48, no 1 : 163-187.
- Fanetti Paolo, 1985, The Italian Party System (1945-1980), New York, ny, St. Martin’s Press.
- Finkelstein Lawrence, 1952, « Prospects for Self-Government in Malaya », Far Eastern Survey, vol. 21, no 2 : 9-17.
- Finnemore Martha, 1996, National Interests in International Society, Ithaca, ny, Cornell University Press.
- Friedrich Carl, 1949, « Rebuilding the German Constitution », The American Political Science Review, vol. 43, no 3 : 461-482.
- Gossman Patricia, 2001, « Afghanistan in the Balance », Middle East Report, no 221 : 8-15.
- Grabbe Heather, 2006, The eu Transformative Power. Europeanization through Conditionality in Central and Eastern Europe, New York, ny, Palgrave/Macmillan.
- Griffith Ernest S., J. Plamenatz et J.R. Pennock, 1956, « Cultural Prerequisites to a Successfully Functioning Democracy. A Symposium », American Political Science Review, vol. 50, no 1 : 101-137.
- Grote Raquier, 2008a, « Afghanistan », dans R. Wulfrum et R. Grote (dir.), Constitutions of the Countries of the World, New York, ny, Oxford University Press : 7-25.
- Grote Raquier, 2008b, « The Republic of Korea », dans R. Wulfrum et R. Grote (dir.), Constitutions of the Countries of the World, New York, ny, Oxford University Press : 3-6.
- Grote Raquier, 2009, « The Republic of Singapour. Introductory Note », dans R. Wulfrum et R. Grote (dir.), Constitutions of the Countries of the World, New York, ny, Oxford University Press.
- Hawkins David, 1969, « Britain and Malaysia. Another View. Was the Decision to Withdraw Entirely Voluntary or Was Britain Pushed a Little ? », Asian Survey, vol. 9, no 7 : 546-562.
- Hayden Joseph R., 1941, « The Philippines at the Threshold of Independence », Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 215 : 100-106.
- Henderson Gregory, 1988, « Constitutional Changes from the First to the Sixth Republics, 1948-1987 », dans I.J. Kim et Y.W. Kihl (dir.), Political Change in South Korea, New York, ny, The Korean pwpa : 22-44.
- Hendrickson David, 1994-1995, « The Democratic Crusade. Intervention, Economic Sanctions and Engagement », World Policy Journal, vol. 11, no 4 : 18-30.
- Hermann Margaret et Charles Kegley, 1998, « The us Use of Military Intervention to Promote Democracy. Evaluating the Record », International Interactions, vol. 24, no 2 : 91-114.
- Holbrooke Richard, 1998, To End a War, New York, ny, Ramdom House.
- Holohan Anna, 2005, Networks of Democracy, Stanford, ca, Stanford University Press.
- Human Rights Watch, 2002-2007, World Report, Afghanistan, www.hrw.org.
- Huntington Samuel, 1991, The Third Wave. Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, ok, University of Oklahoma Press.
- icg (International Crisis Group), 2006, « Afghanistan New Legislature. Making Democracy Work », Asia Report, no 116.
- Ishida Takeshi et Ellis Krauss (dir.), 1989, Democracy in Japan, Pittsburgh, pa, University of Pittsburgh Press.
- Jarstad Anna, 2008, « Dilemnas of War-to-Democracy Transitions. Theories and Concepts », dans A. Jarstad et T. Sisk (dir.), From War to Democracy. Dilemnas of Peacebuilding, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press : 17-37.
- Kades Charles, 1989, « The American Role in Revising Japan’s Imperial Constitution », Political Science Quarterly, vol. 104, no 2 : 215-247.
- Kanter Arnold et Linton F. Brooks, 1994, us Intervention Policy for the Post Cold War World. New Challenges and New Responses, New York, ny, W.W. Norton.
- Katzman Kenneth, 2005, « Afghanistan. Presidential and Parliamentary Elections » Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, Washington, dc, Library of Congress.
- Katzman Kenneth, 2006, « Afghanistan. Elections, Constitution and Government », Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, Washington, dc, Library of Congress.
- Kogan Norman, 1983, A Political History of Italy. The Post War Years, Santa Barbara, ca, Praeger.
- Kubicek Paul, 2003, The European Union and Democratization, Londres, Routledge.
- Lalumière Pierre et André Demichel, 1978, Les régimes parlementaires européens, Paris, Presses universitaires de France.
- Lansang Jose A., 1952, « The Philippine-American Experiment. A Filipino View », Pacific Affairs, vol. 25, no 3 : 226-234.
- Lijphart, Arendt, 1984, Democracies. Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus Governement in Twenty-One Countries, New Haven, ct, Yale University.
- Lipset Seymour Martin, 1959, « Some Social Requisites of Democracy. Economic Development and Political Legitimacy », American Political Science Review, vol. 53, no 1 : 69-105.
- MacGillivray Donald, 1952, « Malaya. The New Nation », International Affairs, vol. 34, no 2 : 157-163.
- MacMahon Patrice, 2004, « Rebuilding Bosnia. A Model to Emulate or to Avoid », Political Science Quarterly, vol. 119, no 4 : 569-593.
- McCune George, 1946, « Occupation Politics in Korea », Far Eastern Survey, vol. 15, no 3 : 33-57.
- McCune George, 1947, « Post-War Government and Politics of Korea », Journal of Politics, vol. 9, no 4 : 605-623.
- Meernik James, 1996, « United States Military Intervention and the Promotion of Democracy », Journal of Peace Research, vol. 33, no 4 : 391-402.
- Muharremi Robert, 2009, « The Republic of Kosovo. Introductory Note », dans R. Wulfrum et R.Grote (dir.), Constitutions of the Countries of the World, New York, ny, Oxford University Press : 3-19.
- Narten Jens, 2009, « Assessing Kosovo’s Postwar Democratization. Between External Imposition and Local Self-Government », Taiwan Journal of Democracy, vol. 5, no 1 : 127-163.
- Nelson Joan et Stephanie Eglinton, 1992, Encouraging Democracy. What Role for Conditioned Aid ? , coll. Policy Essay, no 4, Washington, dc, Overseas Development Council.
- O’Donnell Guillermo et Philippe Schmitter, 1986, Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore, ma, The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- O’Donnell Guillermo, Philippe Schmitter et Lawrence Whitehead (dir.), 1986, Transition from Authoritarian Rule. Prospects for Democracy, Baltimore, ma, The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Parmer Norman, 1957, « Constitutional Change in Malaya’s Plural Society », Far Eastern Survey, vol. 26, no 10 : 145-152.
- Peceny Mark, 1995, « Two Paths to the Promotion of Democracy during us Military Interventions », International Studies Quartely, vol. 39, no 3 : 371-401.
- Peceny Mark, 1999a, Democracy at the Point of Bayonets, University Park, pa, Penn State Press.
- Peceny Mark, 1999b, « Forcing Them to Be Free », Political Research Quarterly, vol. 52, no 3 : 549-582.
- Pickering Jeffrey et Mark Peceny 2006, « Forging Democracy at Gunpoint », International Studies Quarterly, vol. 50, no 2 : 539-559.
- Pons Silvio, 2001, « Stalin, Togliatti and the Origins of the Cold War in Europe », Journal of the Cold War, vol. 3, no 2 : 3-27.
- Powell Ifor J., 1936, « The Commonwealth of the Philippines », Pacific Affairs, vol. 9, no 1 : 33-43.
- Pridham Geoffrey, 2005, Designing Democracy. eu Enlargement and Regime Change in Poscommunist Europe, New York, ny, Palgrave/Macmillan.
- Przeworski Adam, 1986, « Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy » dans G. O’Donnel, P. Schmitter et L. Whitehead (dir.), Transition from Authoritarian Rule. Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore, ma, The Johns Hopkins University Press : 47-64.
- Purcell Victor, 1946, « A Malayan Union. The Proposed New Constitution », Pacific Affairs, vol. 19, no 1 : 20-40.
- Robinson William, 1996, Promoting Polyarchy. Globalization, us Intervention and Hegemony, New York, ny, Cambridge University Press.
- Rostow Walter, 1971, Politics and the States of Growth, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
- Rustow Dankart, 1970, « Transition to Democracy. Toward a Dynamic Model », Comparative Politics, vol. 2, no 3 : 337-363.
- Schimmelfennig Frank, 2002, « Liberal Community and Enlargement. An Event History Analysis », Journal of European Public Policy, vol. 9, no 4 : 598-626.
- Schmitter Philippe, 1996, « The Influence of the International Context upon the Choice of National Institutions and Politics in New Democracies », dans L. Whitehead (dir)., The International Dimensions of Democracy, Oxford, Oxford University Press : 26-55.
- Schumpeter Joseph, 1950, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, New York, ny, Harper.
- Seitelman Max, 1947, « Malaya in Transition », Far Eastern Survey, vol. 16, no 10 : 109-111.
- Seizelet Éric,1990, Monarchie et démocratie dans le Japon d’après-guerre, Paris, Maisonneuve et Larose.
- Silcock T.H. et U.A. Aziz, 1950, Nationalism in Malaya, Lucknow, Institute of Pacific Relations, 8e Conférence, 3-15 octobre.
- Smith Robert Aura, 1945, « The Philippines Bill of Rights », The Far Eastern Quarterly, vol. 4, no 2 : 170-181.
- Sorensen George, 1995, Political Conditionality, Londres, Frank Cass.
- Springhall John, 2001, « Mountbatten versus the Generals. British Military Rule of Singapore : 1945-1946 », Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 36, no 4 : 635-652.
- Stepan Alfred, 1986, « Paths toward Redemocratization. Theoretical and Comparative Considerations », dans G. O’Donnell, P. Schmitter et L. Whitehead (dir.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, vol. 3 : 64-85.
- United States Government, 1945, « American Directive on the Military Government in Austria », The Department of State Bulletin, vol. 13, 4 juillet : 661-673.
- United States Government, 1955, « Statement by John Foster Dulles », Documents on American Foreign Relations : 156-162.
- Vachudova Anna Milada, 2003, « Strategies for Democratization and European Integration in the Balkans » dans M. Cremona (dir.), The Enlargement of Europe and Union, Oxford, Oxford University Press : 141-160.
- Vachudova Anna Milada, 2006, « Democratization in Postcommunist Europe. Liberal Regimes and the Leverage of International Actors », Center for European Studies, Harvard University, Working Paper no 139.
- Vachudova Anna Milada, 2007, « Political Change in the Western Balkans. What Can the eu’s Active Leverage Deliver ? », Communication présentée au congrès de l’European Union Studies Association, Montréal, 17-19 mai.
- VonHippel Karin, 2000, Democracy by Force, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
- Whitehead Lawrence (dir.), 1996a, The International Dimensions of Democratization, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
- Whitehead Lawrence, 1996b, « The Three International Dimensions of Democratization », dans L. Whitehead (dir.), The International Dimensions of Democratization, Oxford, Oxford University Press : 3-26.
- Wolfrum Rudiger et Raquier Grote, 2005, « The Republic of Iraq. Introductory Note », dans R. Wolfrum et R. Grote (dir.), Constitutions of the Countries of the Word, New York, ny, Oxford University Press : 7-8.
- Zuercher Christoph, Nora Roehner et Sarah Rise, 2009, « External Democracy Promotion in Post-Conflict Zones. A Comparative-Analytical Framework », Taiwan Journal of Democracy, vol. 5, no 1 : 1-27.