Abstracts
Résumé
Dans le domaine de la santé, le terme « chronique » est généralement utilisé pour décrire des maladies incurables comme le diabète, l’hypertension ou l’asthme, mais il a également été adopté par des chercheurs et des institutions dans le domaine des dépendances pour caractériser la persistance du trouble d’usage de substances (TUS). Le modèle de maladie chronique du cerveau sur lequel s’appuie cette conception postule que le TUS est une maladie incurable pour l’ensemble des personnes qui en souffrent et qu’en l’absence de traitement, on observe une détérioration de leur condition au même titre que d’autres maladies chroniques. S’appuyant sur tout un corpus de données neuro-médicales indiquant que l’usage prolongé de substances psychoactives entraîne des modifications dans différentes structures du cerveau, les tenants du modèle de maladie chronique attestent que le maintien du TUS dans le temps est expliqué par l’effet de ces modifications sur la capacité d’une personne à exercer un contrôle sur ses comportements. Cet article vise à décrire les fondements théoriques de la notion de chronicité et d’en faire la critique. Après une brève mise en contexte historique, la conception actuelle de la chronicité sera décrite puis critiquée autour de trois éléments : 1) la notion d’incontrôlabilité ; 2) la notion d’irrévocabilité ; 3) la conception monolithique du TUS.
Mots-clés :
- chronicité,
- trouble persistant d’usage de substance,
- modèle de maladie chronique du cerveau,
- approche bio-psycho-sociale
Abstract
In the field of health, the term “chronic” is commonly used to describe incurable diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, or asthma. However, it has also been adopted by researchers and institutions in the field of addiction to characterize the persistence of substance use disorder (SUD). The underlying model of chronic brain disease posits that SUD is an incurable condition for all individuals affected, and without treatment, there is a deterioration of their condition similar to other chronic illnesses. Drawing on a body of neuro-medical evidence indicating that prolonged use of psychoactive substances leads to alterations in various brain structures, proponents of the chronic disease model argue that the sustained nature of SUD is explained by the effect of these modifications on an individual’s ability to exert control over their behaviors. This article aims to describe the theoretical foundations of the concept of chronicity and critically analyze it. After a brief historical context, the current conception of chronicity will be described and critiqued based on three elements: 1) the notion of uncontrollability; 2) the notion of irreversibility; 3) the monolithic conception of SUD.
Keywords:
- chronicity,
- persistent substance use disorder,
- chronic brain disease model,
- bio-psycho-social approach
Resumen
En el campo de la salud, el término “crónico” se utiliza en general para describir las enfermedades incurables como la diabetes, la hipertensión arterial o el asma, pero ha sido adoptado también por investigadores e instituciones en el campo de las dependencias para caracterizar la persistencia del trastorno del uso de sustancias (TUS). El modelo de enfermedad crónica del cerebro sobre el que reposa esta concepción postula que el TUS es una enfermedad incurable para el conjunto de las personas que la sufren y que, en absencia de tratamiento, se observa un deterioro de su condición de igual manera que en el caso de otras enfermedades crónicas. Apoyándose sobre todo un corpus de datos neuro médicos que indican que el uso prolongado de las sustancias psicoactivas produce modificaciones en diferentes estructuras del cerebro, los defensores del modelo de la enfermedad crónica atestiguan que el mantenimiento del TUS en el tiempo se explica por el efecto de estas modificaciones sobre la capacidad de la persona a ejercer un control sobre los comportamientos. Este artículo tiene como objetivo describir los fundamentos teóricos de la noción de cronicidad y realizar la crítica de la misma. Tras una breve reseña del contexto histórico, se describirá la concepción actual de la cronicidad y se la criticará en torno a tres elementos: 1) la noción de incontrolabilidad; 1) la noción de irrevocabilidad y 3) la concepción monolítica del TUS.
Palabras clave:
- cronicidad,
- trastorno persistente del uso de sustancias,
- modelo de enfermedad crónica del cerebro,
- enfoque bio-psico-social
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Alcoholics Anonymous. (2017). This is A.A. - A introduction to the A.A. recovery program. AA World Services Inc.
- Acier, D., Nadeau, L. et Landry, M. (2008). La rémission sans traitement : État de la question pour une consommation problématique d’alcool. Annales Médico-Psychologiques, 166(9), 727-734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amp.2006.02.009
- Ahmed, S. H. (2012). The science of making drug-addicted animals. Neuroscience, 211, 107-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.04.005
- American Society of Addiction Medicine. (2019, septembre). Public policy statement: Definition of addiction. https://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/quality-science/asam’s-2019-definition-of-addiction-(1).pdf?sfvrsn=b8b64fc2_2
- Bassuk, E. L., Hanson, J., Greene, R. N., Richard, M. et Laudet, A. (2016). Peer-delivered recovery support services for addictions in the United States: A systematic review. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 63, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2016.01.003
- Basterfield, C., Hester, R. et Bowden, S. C. (2019). A meta-analysis of the relationship between abstinence and neuropsychological functioning in methamphetamine use disorder. Neuropsychology, 33(5), 739-753. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000552
- Beaulieu, M., Tremblay, J., Baudry, C., Pearson, J. et Bertrand, K. (2021). A systematic review and meta- analysis of the efficacy of the long-term treatment and support of substance use disorders. Social Science & Medicine. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114289
- Beaulieu, M., Tremblay, J. et Bertrand, K. (2022). Adjustments to Service Organization in Specialized Addiction Services and Clinical Strategies for Better Meeting the Needs of People with a Persistent Substance Use Disorder. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 22, 2229–2246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-022-00982-z
- Beck, F. et Richard, J. (2013). Epidémiologie de l’alcoolisation. EMC-endocrinologie-Nutrition, 10(1), 1-9.
- Becker, J. B., McClellan, M. et Reed, B. G. (2016). Sociocultural context for sex differences in addiction. Addiction Biology, 21(5), 1052-1059. https://doi.org/10.1111/adb.12383
- Becoña, E. (2018). Brain disease or biopsychosocial model in addiction? Remembering the vietnam veteran study. Psicothema, 30(3), 270-275. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2017.303
- Bedworth, D. A. et Bedworth, A. E. (2010). Chronic. Dans Dictionary of Health Education.
- Brevers, D., Bechara, A., Kilts, C., Antoniali, V., Bruylant, A., Verbanck, P., Kornreich, C. et Noël, X. (2018). Competing motivations: Proactive response inhibition toward addiction-related stimuli in quitting-motivated individuals. Journal of gambling studies, 34(3), 785-806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-017-9722-2
- Brochu, S., Patenaude, C., Landry, M. et Bertrand, K. (2014). Recension des écrits et problématique : La toxicomanie, une problématique alambiquée ; un traitement complexe. Dans S. Brochu, M. Landry, K. Bertrand, N. Brunelle et C. Patenaude (dir.), À la croisée des chemins : Trajectoires addictives et trajectoires de services. La perspective des personnes toxicomanes (p. 9-40). Les Presses de l’Université Laval.
- Burgess, P. W., Alderman, N., Forbes, C., Costello, A., Laure, M. C., Dawson, D. R., Anderson, N.D., Gilbert, S.J., Dumontheil, I. et Channon, S. (2006). The case for the development and use of “ecologically valid” measures of executive function in experimental and clinical neuropsychology. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12(2), 194-209. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617706060310
- Burnette, J. L., Forsyth, R. B., Desmarais, S. L. et Hoyt, C. L. (2019). Mindsets of addiction: Implications for treatment intentions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 38(5), 367-394. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2019.38.5.367
- Caiata Zufferey, M. (2005). Sortir de la toxicodépendance à l’époque de la réduction des risques : ombres et lumières d’un phénomène en mutation. Psychotropes, 11(1), 55-72.
- Campanella, S., Schroder, E., Kajosch, H., Hanak, C., Veeser, J., Amiot, M., Besse-Hammer, T., Hayef, N. et Kornreich, C. (2020). Neurophysiological markers of cue reactivity and inhibition subtend a three-month period of complete alcohol abstinence. Clinical Neurophysiology, 131(2), 555-565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2019.10.020
- Carreno, D., F. et Pérez-Escobar, J. A. (2019). Addiction in existential positive psychology: From a critique of the brain disease model towards a meaning-centered approach. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 32(3-4), 415-435.
- Carter, A., Capps, B. et Hall, W. (Eds.) (2009). Addiction neurobiology: Ethical and social implications. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.
- Castel, R., Benard-Pellen, M., Bonnemain, C., Boullenger, N., Coppel, A., Leclerc, G., Ogien, A. et Weinberger, M. (1998). Les sorties de la toxicomanie : types, trajectoires, tonalités. Editions Universitaires.
- Castel, R. et Coppel, A. (1991). Les contrôles de la toxicomanie. Dans A. Ehrenberg (dir.), Individus sous influance Drogues, alcools, médicaments psychotropes (p. 237-256). Éditions Esprit.
- Chambon, J. et Couteron, J.-P. (2019). Modernité et addictions : la société addictogène. Dans A. Morel et J. Couteron (dir.), Aide-mémoire-Addictologie en 47 notions (3e éd., p. 119-133). Dunod.
- Chauvet, M., Kamgang, E., Ngui, N. A., Fleury, M.-J. et Simoneau, H. (2015). Les troubles liés à l’utilisation de substances psychoactives, prévalence, utilisation des services et bonnes pratiques. Centre de réadaptation en dépendance de Montréal, institut universitaire.
- Cohen, P. et Cohen, J. (1984). The clinician’s illusion. Archives of general psychiatry, 41(12), 1178-1182. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790230064010
- Couteron, J.-P. (2016). Les Consultations jeunes consommateurs (CJC). L’intervention précoce pour répondre aux conduites addictives des jeunes. Vie sociale et traitements, 1(129), 7-11.
- Couteron, J.-P. (2019). Le concept d’addiction. Dans A. Morel et J. Couteron (dir.), Aide-mémoire-Addictologie en 47 notions (3e éd., p. 107-117). Dunod.
- Cunningham, J. A. et McCambridge, J. (2012). Is alcohol dependence best viewed as a chronic relapsing disorder? Addiction, 107(1), 6-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03583.x
- Dawson, D. A. (1996). Correlates of past‐year status among treated and untreated persons with former alcohol dependence: United States, 1992. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(4), 771-779. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1996.tb01685.x
- Dawson, D. A., Goldstein, R. B. et Grant, B. F. (2007). Rates and correlates of relapse among individuals in remission from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: A 3‐year follow‐up. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(12), 2036-2045. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00536.x
- Dawson, D. A., Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., Chou, P. S., Huang, B. et Ruan, W. J. (2005). Recovery from DSM‐IV alcohol dependence: United States, 2001–2002. Addiction, 100(3), 281-292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00964.x
- Deleuze, M. J., Heeren, A., Billieux, J., de Timary, P., Philippot, P. et Maurage, P. (2013). Implication des biais d’attention sélective dans l’alcoolo-dépendance. Alcoologie et Addictologie, 35(2), 127-135.
- Delile, J.-M., Morales, M. J.-H., Bertrand, P. K., Tapia, M. G. et Vedelago, M. F. (2018). TAPAJ–Travail alternatif avec paiement à la journée, un contingency management. Alcoologie et Addictologie, 40(3), 252-260.
- Dempsey, J. P., Harris, K. S., Shumway, S. T., Kimball, T. G., Herrera, J. C., Dsauza, C. M. et Bradshaw, S. D. (2015). Functional near infrared spectroscopy as a potential biological assessment of addiction recovery: Preliminary findings. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 41(2), 119-126. https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2014.983273
- Dennis, M., Scott, C. K. et Funk, R. (2003). An experimental evaluation of recovery management checkups (RMC) for people with chronic substance use disorders. Evaluation and Program Planning, 26(3), 339-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-7189(03)00037-5
- Dennis, M. L., Scott, C. K., Funk, R. et Foss, M. A. (2005). The duration and correlates of addiction and treatment careers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 28(2), S51-S62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2004.10.013
- Dervaux, A., Lerner, S. et Rousselet, A.-V. (2017). 4. Facteurs de vulnérabilité des addictions. Dans X. Laqueille et A. Chassagnoux (dir.), Pratiques cliniques en addictologie (p. 24-34). Lavoisier.
- Di Chiara, G. (2002). Nucleus accumbens shell and core dopamine: Differential role in behavior and addiction. Behavioural Brain Research, 137(1), 75-114. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4328(02)00286-3
- Domínguez-Salas, S., Díaz-Batanero, C., Lozano-Rojas, O. M. et Verdejo-García, A. (2016). Impact of general cognition and executive function deficits on addiction treatment outcomes: Systematic review and discussion of neurocognitive pathways. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 772-801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.030
- Donovan, D. et Witkiewitz, K. (2012). Relapse prevention : From radical idea to common practice. Addiction Research & Theory, 20(3), 204-217. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2011.647133
- Douaihy, A. et Driscoll, H. P. (2018). Humanizing addiction practice. Springer.
- Dupuy, G., Vorspan, F. et Lépine, J. P. (2009). Épidémiologie des usages de substances addictives : résultats d’études réalisées en France et perspectives internationales. Annales Médico-psychologiques, revue psychiatrique, 167(7), 498-503. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amp.2009.07.002
- European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drugs Addiction et West, R. (2013). Models of addiction. Publications Office of the European Union.
- Ersche, K. D., Clark, L., London, M., Robbins, T. W. et Sahakian, B. J. (2006). Profile of executive and memory function associated with amphetamine and opiate dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31(5), 1036-1047. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300889
- Ersche, K. D., Meng, C., Ziauddeen, H., Stochl, J., Williams, G. B., Bullmore, E. T. et Robbins, T. W. (2020). Brain networks underlying vulnerability and resilience to drug addiction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(26), 15253-15261. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002509117
- Fein, G. et Landman, B. (2005). Treated and treatment-naive alcoholics come from different populations. Alcohol, 35(1), 19-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.10.007
- Fenton, M., Geier, T., Keyes, K., Skodol, A., Grant, B. et Hasin, D. (2013). Combined role of childhood maltreatment, family history, and gender in the risk for alcohol dependence. Psychological Medicine, 43(5), 1045-1057. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712001729
- Field, M. et Kersbergen, I. (2020). Are animal models of addiction useful? Addiction, 115(1), 6-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14764
- Fleury, M.-J., Djouini, A., Huỳnh, C., Tremblay, J., Ferland, F., Ménard, J.-M. et Belleville, G. (2016). Remission from substance use disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 168, 293-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.08.625
- Frazer, K. M., Richards, Q. et Keith, D. R. (2018). The long-term effects of cocaine use on cognitive functioning: A systematic critical review. Behavioural Brain Research, 348, 241-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2018.04.005
- George, W. H., Gilmore, A. K. et Stappenbeck, C. A. (2012). Balanced placebo design : Revolutionary impact on addictions research and theory. Addiction Research & Theory, 20(3), 186-203. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2012.680216
- Granfield, R. et Cloud, W. (1999). Coming clean: Overcoming addiction without treatment. New York University Press.
- Gray Hardcastle, V. et Hardcastle, C. (2017). Addiction, chronic illness, and responsibility. Ideas y Valores, 66, 97-118. https://doi.org/10.15446/ideasyvalores.v66n3supl.65695
- Hagan, H., Pouget, E. R. et Des Jarlais, D. C. (2011). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions to prevent hepatitis C virus infection in people who inject drugs. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 204(1), 74-83. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jir196
- Hall, W., Carter, A. et Forlini, C. (2015). The brain disease model of addiction: Is it supported by the evidence and has it delivered on its promises? The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(1), 105-110.
- Hartje, J. (2009). Disease concept. Dans N. A. Roget et G. L. Fisher (dir.), Encyclopedia of Substance Abuse Prevention, Treatment, and Recovery (p.292-295). SAGE Publications, Inc.
- Heather, N., Best, D., Kawalek, A., Field, M., Lewis, M., Rotgers, F., Wiers, R. W. et Heim, D. (2018). Challenging the brain disease model of addiction: European launch of the addiction theory network. Addiction Research & Theory, 26(4), 249-255. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2017.1399659
- Helzer, J. E. et Pryzbeck, T. R. (1988). The co-occurrence of alcoholism with other psychiatric disorders in the general population and its impact on treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 49(3), 219-224. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1988.49.219
- Hennessy, E. A. (2017). Recovery capital: a systematic review of the literature. Addiction Research & Theory, 25(5), 349-360. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2017.1297990
- Heyman, G. M. (2009). Once an addict, always an addict ? (Addiction : A disorder of choice (p. 65-88). Harvard University Press.
- Heyman, G. M. (2013). Quitting drugs: quantitative and qualitative features. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 29-59. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143041
- Heyman, G. M. (2017). Do addicts have free will? An empirical approach to a vexing question. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 5, 85-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2017.02.001
- Humphreys, K. et McLellan, A. T. (2010). Brief intervention, treatment, and recovery support services for americans who have substance use disorders: An overview of policy in the Obama administration. Psychological Services, 7(4), 275-284. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020390
- Jauffret-Roustide, M. (2009). Un regard sociologique sur les drogues : décrire la complexité des usages et rendre compte des contextes sociaux. La revue lacanienne, (3), 109-118. https://doi.org/10.3917/lrl.093.0109.
- Jauffret-Roustide, M. et Jangal, C. (2021). Usagers, trajectoires, mobilités et besoins Dans A. Cadet-Taïrou, M. Jauffret-Roustide, M. Gandilhon, S. Dambélé et C. Jangal (dir.), Synthèse des principaux résultats de l’étude Crack en Île-de-France Note de résultats d’enquête (vol. 2, p. 10-17). Observatoire Francais des Drogues et des Toxicomanies.
- Jauffret-Roustide, M., Oudaya, L., Rondy, M., Kudawu, Y., Le Strat, Y., Couturier, E., Emmanuelli, J. et Desenclos, J.-C. (2008). Trajectoires de vie et prises de risques chez les femmes usagères de drogues. médecine/sciences, 24, 111-121. https://doi.org/10.1051/medsci/2008242s111
- Jellinek, E. M. (1960). Formulations of the disease nature of alcoholism The disease concept of alcoholism (p. 33-155). Hillhouse Press.
- Kairouz, S., Boyer, R., Nadeau, L., Perreault, M. et Fiset-Laniel, J. (2008). Troubles mentaux, toxicomanie et autres problèmes liés à la santé mentale chez les adultes québécois. Institut de la statistique du Québec.
- Kalant, H. (2010). What neurobiology cannot tell us about addiction. Addiction, 105(5), 780-789. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02739.x
- Kauer, J. A. et Malenka, R. C. (2007). Synaptic plasticity and addiction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8(11), 844-858. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2234
- Kelly, J., Bergman, B., Hoeppner, B., Vilsaint, C. et White, W. (2017). Prevalence and pathways of recovery from drug and alcohol problems in the United States population: Implications for practice, research, and policy. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 181, 162-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.09.028
- Kincaid, H. et Sullivan, J. (2010). Medical models of addiction. Dans D. Ross, H. Kincaid, D. Spurrett et P. Collins (dir.), What is addiction? (p. 353-376). MIT Press.
- Koob, G. (2013). Addiction is a Reward Deficit and Stress Surfeit Disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4(72), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00072
- Koob, G. F. et Le Moal, M. (2006). Neurobiological theories of addiction. Dans G. F. Koob et M. L. Moal (dir.), Neurobiology of addiction (p. 377-428). Elsevier.
- Kougiali, Z. G., Fasulo, A., Needs, A. et Van Laar, D. (2017). Planting the seeds of change: Directionality in the narrative construction of recovery from addiction. Psychology & Health, 32(6), 639-664. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2017.1293053
- Landry, M. et Brochu, S. (2012). Le concept d’addiction : L’ASAM et la tradition biopsychosociale du Québec. RISQ-INFO, 20(1), 1-3.
- Laudet, A. B. (2007). What does recovery mean to you? Lessons from the recovery experience for research and practice. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 33(3), 243-256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2007.04.014
- Laudet, A. B. et Humphreys, K. (2013). Promoting recovery in an evolving policy context: What do we know and what do we need to know about recovery support services? Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 45(1), 126-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2013.01.009
- Lawrence, R. E., Rasinski, K. A., Yoon, J. D. et Curlin, F. A. (2013). Physicians’ beliefs about the nature of addiction: A survey of primary care physicians and psychiatrists. The American Journal on Addictions, 22(3), 255-260. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2012.00332.x
- Leshner, A. I. (1997). Addiction is a brain disease, and it matters. Science, 278(5335), 45-47. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.278.5335.45
- Leshner, A. I. (2001). Addiction Is a Brain Disease. Issues in Science and Technology, 17(3), https://issues.org/leshner/
- Levine, H. G. (1978). The discovery of addiction. Changing conceptions of habitual drunkenness in America. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 39(1), 143-174. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1978.39.143
- Lewis, M. (2015). The biology of desire: Why addiction is not a disease. Hachette UK.
- Lewis, M. (2017). Addiction and the brain: Development, not disease. Neuroethics, 10(1), 7-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-016-9293-4
- Leyton, M. et Vezina, P. (2014). Dopamine ups and downs in vulnerability to addictions: a neurodevelopmental model. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 35(6), 268-276.
- Li, Q., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Li, W., Zhu, J., Zheng, Y., Chen, J., Zhao, L., Zhou, Z., Liu, Y., Wang, W. et Tian, J. (2013). Assessing cue-induced brain response as a function of abstinence duration in heroin-dependent individuals: An event-related fMRI study. PLoS ONE, 8(5), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062911
- Lopez‐Quintero, C., Hasin, D. S., De Los Cobos, J. P., Pines, A., Wang, S., Grant, B. F. et Blanco, C. (2011). Probability and predictors of remission from life‐time nicotine, alcohol, cannabis or cocaine dependence: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Addiction, 106(3), 657‑669. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03194.x
- Loughman, A. et Haslam, N. (2018). Neuroscientific explanations and the stigma of mental disorder: a meta-analytic study. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3(43). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-018-0136-1
- MacKillop, J. (2019). Is addiction really a chronic relapsing disorder? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 44(1), 41-44. https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.14246
- Maisto, S., Hallgren, K., Roos, C. et Witkiewitz, K. (2018). Course of remission from and relapse to heavy drinking following outpatient treatment of alcohol use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 187, 319‑326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.03.011
- Mann, K., Schäfer, D. R., Längle, G., Ackermann, K. et Croissant, B. (2005). The long‐term course of alcoholism, 5, 10 and 16 years after treatment. Addiction, 100(6), 797-805. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1360-0443.2005.01065.x
- Maranda, M.-F. (1992). Approches de l’alcoolisme. De la morale… à la sociologie du travail. Service social, 41(1), 28-45. https://doi.org/10.7202/706556ar
- Marlatt, G. A., Demming, B. et Reid, J. B. (1973). Loss of control drinking in alcoholics: An experimental analogue. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 81(3), 233-241. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034532
- McKay, J. (2013). Extended treatment models Dans B. S. McCrady et E. E. Epstein (dir.), Addictions : A comprehensive guidebook (2e éd., p. 482-499). Oxford University Press.
- McKay, J. R. (2009a). The course of substance use disorders and implications for continuing care. Dans J. R. McKay (dir.), Treating substance use disorders with adaptive continuing care (p.19-32). American Psychological Association.
- McKay, J. R. (2009b). Continuing care research: What we have learned and where we are going. Journal of substance abuse treatment, 36(2), 131-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.10.004
- McKay, J. R., Van Horn, D. H. A. et Morrison, R. (2010). Telephone continuing care for adults. Hazelden Foundation Press.
- McLellan, A. T., Lewis, D. C., O’brien, C. P. et Kleber, H. D. (2000). Drug dependence, a chronic medical illness: Implications for treatment, insurance, and outcomes evaluation. JAMA, 284(13), 1689-1695. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.13.1689
- McQuaid, R. J., Malik, A., Moussouni, K., Baydack, N., Stargardter, M. et Morrisey, M. (2017). Life in recovery from addiction in Canada. Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction.
- Miller, W. R. (1996). Motivational interviewing: Research, practice, and puzzles. Addictive Behaviors, 21(6), 835-842. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(96)00044-5
- Morel, A. (2019). Drogues et expérience. Dans A. Morel et J. Couteron (dir.), Aide-mémoire-Addictologie en 47 notions (3e éd., p. 87-94). Dunod.
- Moss, H. B., Chen, C. M. et Yi, H.-Y. (2007). Subtypes of alcohol dependence in a nationally representative sample. Drug and alcohol dependence, 91(2-3), 149-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.05.016
- Müller, M., Ajdacic-Gross, V., Vetrella, A. B., Preisig, M., Castelao, E., Lasserre, A., Rodgers, S., Rössler, W., Vetter, S., Seifritz, E. et Vandeleur, C. (2020). Subtypes of alcohol use disorder in the general population: A latent class analysis. Psychiatry Research, 285, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112712
- Nadeau, L. (1983). Stanton peele, ou l’extension du concept de dépendance. Psychotropes, 1(1), 76-78.
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2020, consulté 14 mars 2020). Alcohol facts and statistics. Alcohol’s Effects on Health Research-based information on drinking and its impact. https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/alcohol-facts-and-statistics
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2013, consulté 26 mars 2020). Fear of stigma: Does it hold you back?. Drug abuse.Gov https://teens.drugabuse.gov/blog/post/fear-stigma-does-it-hold-you-back
- National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2018, consulté 14 mars 2020). Understanding drug use and addiction. Drug abuse.Gov https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/understanding-drug-use-addiction
- Noël, X., Van der Linden, M., Brevers, D., Campanella, S., Verbanck, P., Hanak, C., Kornreich, C. et Verbruggen, F. (2013). Separating intentional inhibition of prepotent responses and resistance to proactive interference in alcohol-dependent individuals. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 128(3), 200-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.08.021
- Nutt, D. J. et Nestor, L. J. (2018). Addiction. Oxford University Press.
- O’Brien, C. et McLellan, A. T. (1996). Myths about the treatment of addiction. The Lancet, 347(8996), 237-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(96)90409-2
- Olievenstein, C. (1983). La drogue ou la vie. Laffont
- Pedersen, L. et Trouessin, M. (2016). La perte de contrôle dans l’addiction. Implications philosophiques, 1-18.
- Peele, S. (1977). Redefining addiction I. Making addiction a scientifically and socially useful concept. International Journal of Health Services, 7(1), 103-124. https://doi.org/10.2190/A7JM-3YQ7-NPAK-MWTL
- Peele, S. (1979). Redefining addiction II. The meaning of addiction in our lives. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 11(4), 289-297. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1979.10471411
- Peele, S. (2016). People control their addictions: No matter how much the “chronic” brain disease model of addiction indicates otherwise, we know that people can quit addictions–with special reference to harm reduction and mindfulness. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 4, 97-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2016.05.003
- Peele, S. et Brodsky, A. (1975). Love and addiction. Taplinger.
- Poliquin, H., Bertrand, K., Flores-Aranda, J. et Roy, É. (2017). Understanding experiences of and rationales for sharing crack-smoking equipment: A qualitative study with persons who smoke crack in Montréal. International Journal of Drug Policy(48), 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.05.059
- Redish, A. D. (2013). The mind within the brain : How we make decisions and how those decisions go wrong. Oxford University Press.
- Richard, D., Pirot, S. et Senon, J.-L. (2000). Les drogues et leurs modes d’action. Dans P. Angel, D. Richard et M. Valleur (dir.), Toxicomanies (p. 57-77). Masson.
- Robins, L. N., Davis, D. H. et Goodwin, D. W. (1974). Drug use by us army enlisted men in Vietnam: A follow-up on their return home. American Journal of Epidemiology, 99(4), 235-249. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a121608
- Roman, P. M. (2013). Health care reforms and treatment for substance use disorders. Dans P. M. Miller (dir.), Interventions for addiction: Comprehensive addictive behaviors and disorders (vol. 3, p. 567-577). Elsevier.
- Rumpf, H. J., Bischof, G., et John, U. (2007). Remission without formal help: New directions in studies using survey data. Dans H. Klingemann et L. C. Sobell (dir.), Promoting self-change from addictive behaviors (p. 73-85). Springer.
- Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2016). America’s need for and receipt of substance use treatment in 2015. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/report_2716/ShortReport-2716.html
- Schmitt, F. et Jauffret-Roustide, M. (2018). Gouverner par autocontrôles ? La réduction des risques auprès des usagers de drogues. Terrains & travaux, 32(1), 55-80. https://doi.org/10.3917/tt.032.0055.
- Schoenbaum, G., Chang, C.-Y., Lucantonio, F. et Takahashi, Y. K. (2016). Thinking outside the box: Orbitofrontal cortex, imagination, and how we can treat addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(13), 2966-2976. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2016.147
- Schulte, M. H. J., Cousijn, J., den Uyl, T. E., Goudriaan, A. E., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., Schilt, T. et Wiers, R. W. (2014). Recovery of neurocognitive functions following sustained abstinence after substance dependence and implications for treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(7), 531-550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.08.002
- Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80(1), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.1998.80.1.1
- Seeley, J. R., Farmer, R. F., Kosty, D. B. et Gau, J. M. (2019). Prevalence, incidence, recovery, and recurrence of alcohol use disorders from childhood to age 30. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 194, 45-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.09.012
- Simpson, D. D. et Sells, S. B. (1982). Effectiveness of treatment for drug abuse. Advances in Alcohol & Substance Abuse, 2(1), 7-29. https://doi.org/10.1300/J251v02n01_02
- Sliedrecht, W., de Waart, R., Witkiewitz, K. et Roozen, H. G. (2019). Alcohol use disorder relapse factors: A systematic review. Psychiatry Research, 278, 97-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.05.038
- Snoek, A. (2017). How to recover from a brain disease: Is addiction a disease, or is there a disease-like stage in addiction? Neuroethics, 10(1), 185-194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-017-9312-0
- Sobell, L., Cunningham, J. et Sobell, M. (1996). Recovery from alcohol problems with and without treatment: Prevalence in two population surveys. American Journal of Public Health, 86(7), 966-972. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.86.7.966
- Société médicale canadienne sur l’addiction (2011, avril). Public policy statement: definition of addiction. [L’URL n’est plus référencé] http://www.csam-smca.org/about/policy-statements/
- Solinas, M., Belujon, P., Fernagut, P. O., Jaber, M. et Thiriet, N. (2019). Dopamine and addiction: What have we learned from 40 years of research? Journal of Neural Transmission, 126(4), 481-516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-018-1957-2
- Spectre de rue. (2024). Travail alternatif payé à la journée. https://www.spectrederue.org/programme/tapaj-emploi-jeunesse-montreal/
- Stavro, K., Pelletier, J. et Potvin, S. (2013). Widespread and sustained cognitive deficits in alcoholism: A meta-analysis. Addiction Biology, 18(2), 203-213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1369-1600.2011.00418.x
- Stinson, F. S., Grant, B. F., Dawson, D. A., Ruan, W. J., Huang, B. et Saha, T. (2006). Comorbidity between dsm–iv alcohol and specific drug use disorders in the United States: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Alcohol Research & Health, 29(2), 94-106.
- Storbjörk, J. et Room, R. (2008). The two worlds of alcohol problems: Who is in treatment and who is not? Addiction Research & Theory, 16(1), 67-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066350701578136
- Suissa, A. J. (2009). Du concept d’addictus au processus de dépathologisation : la richesse psychosociale du concept de dépendance selon Stanton Peele. Drogues, Santé et Société, 8(2), 75-108. https://doi.org/10.7202/044472ar
- Swendsen, J. et Le Moal, M. (2011). Individual vulnerability to addiction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1216(1), 73-85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05894.x
- Tai, B. et Volkow, N. (2013). Treatment for substance use disorder: Opportunities and challenges under the affordable care act. Social Work in Public Health, 28(3-4), 165-174. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2013.758975
- Tracy, J. M. (2016). The relationship between executive functioning and substance abuse [Thèse de doctorat, Louisiana Tech University]. Clinical psychology commons.
- Tsemberis, S. (2011). Housing first: The pathways model to end homelessness for people with mental illness and addiction manual. European Journal of Homelessness, 5(2), 235-240.
- Vaillant, G. E. (2003). A 60-year follow‐up of alcoholic men. Addiction, 98(8), 1043-1051. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00422.x
- Valleur, M. (2009). La nature des addictions. Psychotropes, 15(2), 21-44. https://doi.org/10.3917/psyt.152.0021
- Valleur, M. et Matysiak, J.-C. (2006). Les addictions : panorama clinique, modèles explicatifs, débat social et prise en charge (2e éd.). Armand Colin.
- Verdejo-García, A. et Pérez-García, M. (2007). Profile of executive deficits in cocaine and heroin polysubstance users: Common and differential effects on separate executive components. Psychopharmacology, 190(4), 517-530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0632-8
- Volkow, N. (2015, June 12). Addiction is a disease of free will. Huffington Post https://www.huffpost.com/entry/addiction-is-a-disease-of_b_7561200
- Volkow, N. D. et Baler, R. D. (2015). Now vs later brain circuits: Implications for obesity and addiction. Trends in Neurosciences, 38(6), 345-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2015.04.002
- Volkow, N. D. et Boyle, M. (2018). Neuroscience of addiction : Relevance to prevention and treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(8), 729-740. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17101174
- Volkow, N. D., Chang, L., Wang, G.-J., Fowler, J. S., Franceschi, D., Sedler, M., Gatley, S.J., Miller, E., Hitzemann, R. et Ding, Y.-S. (2001). Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(23), 9414-9418. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-23-09414.2001
- Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S., Wang, G. J., Baler, R. et Telang, F. (2009). Imaging dopamine’s role in drug abuse and addiction. Neuropharmacology, 56, 3-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.05.022
- Volkow, N. D. et Koob, G. (2015). Brain disease model of addiction: why is it so controversial? The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(8), 677-679.
- Volkow, N. D., Koob, G. F. et McLellan, A. T. (2016). Neurobiologic advances from the brain disease model of addiction. New England Journal of Medicine 374, 363–371. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1511480
- Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Tomasi, D., Telang, F. et Baler, R. (2010). Addiction : Decreased reward sensitivity and increased expectation sensitivity conspire to overwhelm the brain’s control circuit. Bioessays, 32(9), 748-755. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.201000042
- Waldorf, D. et Biernacki, P. (1979). Natural recovery from heroin addiction: A review of the incidence literature. Journal of Drug Issues, 9(2), 281-289. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204267900900212
- Walsh, D. A. B. et Foster, J. L. H. (2021). A call to action. A critical review of mental health related anti-stigma campaigns. Frontiers in Public Health, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.569539
- Waters, A. J., Shiffman, S., Bradley, B. P., et Mogg, K. (2003). Attentional shifts to smoking cues in smokers. Addiction, 98(10), 1409-1417. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00465.x
- Weisner, C., Matzger, H. et Kaskutas, L. A. (2003). How important is treatment? One‐year outcomes of treated and untreated alcohol‐dependent individuals. Addiction, 98(7), 901-911. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00438.x
- White, W. L. (2000). Addiction as a disease: The birth of a concept. Addiction, 46-51.
- White, W. L. (2008). Recovery management and recovery-oriented systems of care: Scientific rationale and promising practices. Northeast Addiction Technology Transfer Center and the Great Lakes Great Lakes Addiction Technology Transfer Center.
- White, W. L. (2012). Recovery/remission from substance use disorders: An analysis of reported outcomes in 415 scientific reports, 1868-2011. Philadelphia Department of Behavioral Health and Intellectual disAbility Services and the Great Lakes Addiction Technology Transfer Center.
- White, W. L. et McClellan, A. T. (2008). Addiction as a chronic disease: Key messages for clients, families and referral sources. Counselor, 9(3), 24-33.
- Wiens, T. K. et Walker, L. J. (2015). The chronic disease concept of addiction: Helpful or harmful? Addiction Research & Theory, 23(4), 309-321. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2014.987760
- Wolf, M. E. (2016). Synaptic mechanisms underlying persistent cocaine craving. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 17(6), 351-365. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.39
- World Health Organization. (1950). Expert committee on mental health (alcoholism) report on the first session (publication no 42).
- Yang, T., Zhao, X., Zhang, F., Li, X., Zhu, H., Zhang, M. et Shen, M. (2019). Craving-induced effects of different drug cues on persons abstaining from heroin. Addiction Research & Theory, 27(3), 235-241. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2018.1496425
- Young, A. (2017). Uncovery beneath the monolith of addiction there remains a human being. Dans J. K. Edwards, A. Young et H. J. Nickels (dir.), Handbook of strengths-based clinical practices: Finding common factors (1ère éd., p. 53-69). Routledge.
- Zargar, F., Bagheri, N., Tarrahi, M. J. et Salehi, M. (2019). Effectiveness of emotion regulation group therapy on craving, emotion problems, and marital satisfaction in patients with substance use disorders: A randomized clinical trial. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 14(4), 283-290.