Abstracts
Résumé
Alors que plusieurs États américains ont fait le choix d’assouplir la législation entourant l’usage récréatif du cannabis et qu’au Canada, cette substance est encadrée par un programme fédéral pour son utilisation thérapeutique, le débat sur l’utilisation du cannabis et ses effets néfastes continue de faire couler beaucoup d’encre. S’éloignant souvent des données probantes, ce débat est généralement marqué par des positions clivées qui ne rendent pas compte des nuances récemment apportées par les données scientifiques sur le sujet. Afin de pouvoir bien évaluer les risques que pose cette substance, nous suggérons ici de délaisser le questionnement dichotomique quant au fait que le cannabis cause, ou pas, certains problèmes de santé au profit d’une discussion sur les facteurs modulant la relation entre le cannabis et certains effets délétères potentiels, notamment sur le plan de la cognition, de la psychose et de la toxicomanie. Nous discutons ainsi de certaines données sur la composition du cannabis, son mode d’utilisation, le type de population en faisant usage et la présence de stresseurs environnementaux, qui semblent tous moduler les risques associés à la consommation de cannabis. Devant les données indiquant que le cannabis est une substance psychoactive possédant à la fois des effets délétères et bénéfiques, et au regard du fait qu’une minorité d’individus éprouveront des difficultés après en avoir consommé, il nous semble crucial de faire bon usage et d’approfondir la littérature scientifique portant sur ces facteurs modulateurs. Nous pensons que cela pourrait permettre de mieux informer la population et prendre des décisions plus éclairées, notamment quant aux modalités entourant un éventuel changement au statut légal du cannabis.
Mots-clés :
- cannabis,
- légalisation,
- effets délétères,
- toxicomanie
Abstract
While many American states recently changed the legal status of cannabis and the Canadian federal government instituted a national program to regulate its therapeutic use, the debate surrounding cannabis use and its adverse effects continues to spark interest, both among the experts and among the public at large. In order to properly assess the risks and benefits associated with cannabis use, we suggest not to focus on the question of whether cannabis is deleterious or not, but to focus instead on the factors modulating the relationship between cannabinoid use and its adverse effects on cognition, psychosis and addiction. We discuss here how the content of cannabis, patterns of use, characteristics of the user and exposure to environmental stressors all modify the risks associated with cannabis use. We also underline that growing evidence support both beneficial and deleterious properties of this substance, and the fact that only a portion of users will experience its negative effects. We thus suggest that a better usage and understanding of the literature on those modulating factors seems warranted in order to properly inform the population. This approach will also be critical to take evidence-based decisions regarding its legal status and how to implement the potential changes to current regulations pertaining to the legal status of cannabis.
Keywords:
- cannabis,
- legalization,
- deleterious effects,
- addiction
Resumen
En tanto que varios estados en los Estados Unidos han optado por relajar la legislación que rodea el uso recreativo del cannabis y que en Canadá esta sustancia está enmarcada por un programa federal para su uso terapéutico, el debate sobre el uso del cannabis y sus efectos nocivos sigue haciendo correr mucha tinta. Alejado a menudo de pruebas fehacientes, el mismo está marcado generalmente por posiciones tradicionales que no reflejan los matices aportados últimamente por los datos científicos sobre el tema. Con el fin de evaluar bien los riesgos que presenta esta sustancia, sugerimos aquí abandonar el cuestionamiento dicotómico sobre el hecho de que el cannabis cause, o no, ciertos problemas de salud a favor de una discusión sobre los factores que modulan la relación entre el cannabis y algunos efectos nocivos potenciales, en particular en lo que se refiere a la cognición, la psicosis y la toxicomanía. Analizamos en este artículo algunos datos sobre la composición del cannabis, su modo de uso, el tipo de población que lo utiliza y la presencia de factores de estrés ambientales, todo lo cual parece modular los riesgos asociados con el uso del cannabis. Ante datos que muestran que el cannabis es una sustancia psicoactiva que posee tanto efectos perjudiciales como beneficiosos y teniendo en cuenta que una minoría de consumidores presentará dificultades luego de haberlo consumido, nos parece crucial hacer un buen uso de la literatura científica para profundizar el análisis de estos factores de modulación. Creemos que eso permitirá informar mejor al público y tomar decisiones mejor informadas, principalmente en lo que se refiere a las modalidades relacionadas con un eventual cambio en el estatuto legal del cannabis.
Palabras clave:
- cannabis,
- legalización,
- efectos nocivos,
- toxicomanía
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Agrawal, A. et Lynskey, M. T. (2009). Candidate genes for cannabis use disorders: findings, challenges and directions. Addiction, 104(4), 518-532. doi: ADD504[pii]10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02504.x
- Agrawal, A. et Lynskey, M. T. (2006). The genetic epidemiology of cannabis use, abuse and dependence. Addiction, 101(6), 801–812. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01399.x
- Andreasson, S., Allebeck, P., Engstrom, A. et Rydberg, U. (1987). Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. The Lancet, 2(8574), 1483-1486. doi: S0140-6736(87)92620-1 [pii]
- Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton, R., Murray, R., Caspi, A. et Moffitt, T. E. (2002). Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. British Medical Journal, 325(7374), 1212-1213.
- Association américaine de psychiatrie. (2013). DSM-5 Manuel diagnostique et statistique des troubles mentaux, Paris, France : Elsevier-Masson.
- Atakan, Z., Bhattacharyya, S., Allen, P., Martin-Santos, R., Crippa, J. A., Borgwardt, S. J., … McGuire, P. (2013). Cannabis affects people differently: inter-subject variation in the psychotogenic effects of Delta9- tetrahydrocannabinol: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study with healthy volunteers. Psychological Medicine, 43(6), 1255-1267. doi:10.1017/s0033291712001924
- Atwood, B. K. et Mackie, K. (2010). CB2: a cannabinoid receptor with an identity crisis. British Journal of Pharmacology, 160(3), 467-479. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00729.x
- Battisti, R. A., Roodenrys, S., Johnstone, S. J., Respondek, C., Hermens, D. F. et Solowij, N. (2010). Chronic use of cannabis and poor neural efficiency in verbal memory ability. Psychopharmacology, 209(4), 319-330. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1800-4
- Behrendt, S., Wittchen, H. U., Hofler, M., Lieb, R. et Beesdo, K. (2009). Transitions from first substance use to substance use disorders in adolescence: is early onset associated with a rapid escalation? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 99(1-3), 68-78. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.06.014
- Benmaamar, R. (2014). Colorado: a first in the USA for legal sale of marijuana. The Lancet, 15(2), e55. doi : 10.1016/S1470-2045(13)70601-6
- Blanco, C., Ogburn, E., Perez de Los Cobos, J., Lujan, J., Nunes, E. V., Grant, B., . . . Hasin, D. S. (2008). DSM-IV criteria-based clinical subtypes of cannabis use disorders: results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 96(1-2), 136-144. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.02.008
- Blanco, C., Rafful, C., Wall, M. M., Ridenour, T. A., Wang, S. et Kendler, K. S. (2014). Towards a comprehensive developmental model of cannabis use disorders. Addiction, 109(2), 284-294. doi: 10.1111/add.12382
- Bossong, M. G. et Niesink, R. J. M. (2010). Adolescent brain maturation, the endogenous cannabinoid system and the neurobiology of cannabis induced schizophrenia. Progress in Neurobiology, 92(3), 370-385. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.06.010
- Brents, L. K. et Prather, P. L. (2014). The K2/Spice Phenomenon: emergence, identification, legislation and metabolic characterization of synthetic cannabinoids in herbal incense products. Drug Metabolism Review, 46(1), 72-85. doi: 10.3109/03602532.2013.839700
- Burns, J. K. (2013). Pathways from cannabis to psychosis: a review of the evidence. Front Psychiatry, 4, 128. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00128
- Burstein, S. H. (2014). The cannabinoid acids, analogs and endogenous counterparts. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 22(10), 2830-2843. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2014.03.038
- Butterworth, P., Slade, T. et Degenhardt, L. (2014). Factors associated with the timing and onset of cannabis use and cannabis use disorder: results from the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Drug and Alcohol Review, 33(5), 555-564. doi: 10.1111/dar.12183
- Cardoso, L. D. et Malbergier, A. (2015). Who is not using condoms among HIV positive patients in treatment in the largest city in Brazil? AIDS Care, 27(5), 629-636. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2014.986047
- Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., … Craig, I. W. (2005). Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Biological Psychiatry, 57(10), 1117-1127. doi: S0006- 3223(05)00103-4 [pii]10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.026
- Cassidy, C. M., Lepage, M. et Malla, A. (2014). Do motivation deficits in schizophrenia spectrum disorders promote cannabis use? An investigation of behavioural response to natural rewards and drug cues. Journal of Psychiatry Research, 215(3), 522-527. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.12.021
- Chen, C. Y., O’Brien, M. S. et Anthony, J. C. (2005). Who becomes cannabis dependant soon after onset of use? Epidemiological evidence from the United States: 2000-2001. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 79(1), 11-22. doi : 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.11.014
- Chen, C. Y., Storr, C. L. et Anthony, J. C. (2009). Early-onset drug use and risk for drug dependence problems. Addictive Behaviors, 34(3), 319-322. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.10.021
- Colizzi, M., Iyegbe, C., Powell, J., Ursini, G., Porcelli, A., Bonvino, A., … Forti, M. D. (2015). Interaction Between Functional Genetic Variation of DRD2 and Cannabis Use on Risk of Psychosis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41(5), 1171-1182. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbv032
- Cortes-Briones, J. A., Cahill, J. D., Skosnik, P. D., Mathalon, D. H., Williams, A., Sewell, R. A., … D’Souza, D. C. (2015). The Psychosis-like Effects of Delta-Tetrahydrocannabinol Are Associated with Increased Cortical Noise in Healthy Humans. Biological Psychiatry, 78(11), 805-813. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.03.023
- Cousijn, J. (2015). Embracing comorbidity: a way toward understanding the role of motivational and control processes in cannabis use disorders. Frontiers in psychology, 6, 677. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00677
- Cousijn, J., Goudriaan, A. E., Ridderinkhof, K. R., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J. et Wiers, R. W. (2013). Neural responses associated with cue-reactivity in frequent cannabis users. Addiction Biology, 18(3), 570-580. doi: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2011.00417.x
- Crane, N. A., Schuster, R. M., Mermelstein, R. J. et Gonzalez, R. (2015). Neuropsychological sex differences associated with age of initiated use among young adult cannabis users. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(4), 389- 401. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2015.1020770
- Crean, R. D., Crane, N. et Mason, B. J. (2011). An Evidence-Based Review of Acute and Long-Term Effects of Cannabis Use on Executive Cognitive Functions. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 5(1), 1-8. doi: 10.1097/ADM.0b013e31820c23fa
- D’Souza, D. C., Perry, E., MacDougall, L., Ammerman, Y., Cooper, T., Wu, Y. T., … Krystal, J. H. (2004). The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29(8), 1558-1572. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300496
- D’Souza, D. C., Abi-Saab, W. M., Madonick, S., Forselius-Bielen, K., Doersch, A., Braley, G., … Krystal, J. H. (2005). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction. Biological Psychiatry, 57(6), 594-608. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.12.006
- Daly, M. (2013). Personality may explain the association between cannabis use and neuropsychological impairment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the Unites States of America, 110(11), E979. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1218571110
- Day, N. L. et Richardson, G. A. (1991). Prenatal marijuana use: epidemiology, methodologic issues, and infant outcome. Clinics in Perinatology, 18(1), 77-91.
- De Sousa, K. R., Tiwari, A. K., Giuffra, D. E., Mackenzie, B., Zai, C. C. et Kennedy, J. L. (2013). Age at onset of schizophrenia: cannabis, COMT gene, and their interactions. Schizophrenia Research, 151(1-3), 289-290. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.10.037
- Degenhardt, L., Dierker, L., Chiu, W. T., Medina-Mora, M. E., Neumark, Y., Sampson, N., … Kessler, R. C. (2010). Evaluating the drug use «gateway» theory using cross-national data: consistency and associations of the order of initiation of drug use among participants in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 108(1-2), 84-97. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.12.001
- Desrosiers, N. A., Ramaekers, J. G., Chauchard, E., Gorelick, D. A. et Huestis, M. A. (2015). Smoked cannabis’ psychomotor and neurocognitive effects in occasional and frequent smokers. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 39(4), 251-261. doi:10.1093/jat/bkv012
- Dickinson, D., Elvevåg, B. (2009). Genes, cognition and brain through a COMT lens. Neuroscience, 164(1), 72-87. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.014.
- Di Forti, M., Sallis, H., Allegri, F., Trotta, A., Ferraro, L., Stilo, S. A., … Murray, R. M. (2014). Daily use, especially of high-potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40(6), 1509-1517. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbt181
- Di Forti, M., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Pariante, C., Mondelli, V., Marques, T.R., Handley, R., Luzi, S., Russo, M., Paparelli, A., Butt, A., Stilo, S.A., Wiffen, B., Powell, J., Murray, R.M. (2009). High-potency cannabis and the risk of psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 195(6), 488-91. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.109.064220.
- Duncan, L. E. et Keller, M. C. (2011). A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(10), 1041-1049. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020191
- Ehlers, C. L., Gizer, I. R., Vieten, C., Gilder, D. A., Stouffer, G. M., Lau, P., et Wilhelmsen, K. C. (2010). Cannabis dependence in the San Francisco Family Study: age of onset of use, DSM-IV symptoms, withdrawal, and heritability. Addictive Behaviors, 35(2), 102–110. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.09.009
- Ehrenreich, H., Rinn, T., Kunert, H. J., Moeller, M. R., Poser, W., Schilling, L., … Hoehe, M. R. (1999). Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use. Psychopharmacology, 142(3), 295-301.
- Eksborg, S. et Rajs, J. (2008). Causes and manners of death among users of heroin, methadone, amphetamine, and cannabis in relation to post-mortem chemical tests for illegal drugs. Substance Use and Misuse, 43(10), 1326-1339. doi: 10.1080/10826080801922124
- Ermis, A., Erkiran, M., Dasdemir, S., Turkcan, A. S., Ceylan, M. E., Bireller, E. S. et Cakmakoglu, B. (2015). The relationship between catechol-Omethyltransferase gene Val158Met (COMT) polymorphism and premorbid cannabis use in Turkish male patients with schizophrenia. In Vivo, 29(1), 129-132.
- Feingold, D., Fox, J., Rehm, J. et Lev-Ran, S. (2015). Natural outcome of cannabis use disorder: a 3-year longitudinal follow-up. Addiction, 110(12), 1963-1974. doi: 10.1111/add.13071
- Ferdinand, R. F., Sondeijker, F., van der Ende, J., Selten, J. P., Huizink, A. et Verhulst, F. C. (2005). Cannabis use predicts future psychotic symptoms, and vice versa. Addiction, 100(5), 612-618. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01070.x
- Fernandez-Serrano, M. J., Perez-Garcia, M. et Verdejo-Garcia, A. (2011). What are the specific vs. generalized effects of drugs of abuse on neuropsychological performance? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(3), 377-406. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.04.008
- Freeman, D., Dunn, G., Murray, R. M., Evans, N., Lister, R., Antley, A., … Morrison, P. D. (2015). How cannabis causes paranoia: using the intravenous administration of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to identify key cognitive mechanisms leading to paranoia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41(2), 391-399. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbu098
- Freeman, T. P. et Winstock, A. R. (2015). Examining the profile of high-potency cannabis and its association with severity of cannabis dependence. Psychological Medicine, 45(15), 3181-3189. doi: 10.1017/S0033291715001178
- Fried, P. A. et Makin, J. E. (1987). Neonatal behavioural correlates of prenatal exposure to marihuana, cigarettes and alcohol in a low risk population. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 9(1), 1-7.
- Fried, P. A. et Watkinson, B. (2000). Visuoperceptual functioning differs in 9- to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 22(1), 11-20. doi: S0892-0362(99)00046-X [pii]
- Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B. et Gray, R. (1992). A follow-up study of attentional behavior in 6-year-old children exposed prenatally to marihuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 14(5), 299-311. doi: 0892-0362(92)90036-A [pii]
- Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B. et Gray, R. (1998). Differential effects on cognitive functioning in 9- to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 20(3), 293-306. doi: S0892-0362(97)00091-3 [pii]
- Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B. et Gray, R. (2005). Neurocognitive consequences of marihuana--a comparison with pre-drug performance. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27(2), 231-239. doi: S0892-0362(04)00151-5 [pii] 10.1016/j.ntt.2004.11.003
- Gilbert, C. R., Baram, M. et Cavarocchi, N. C. (2013). «Smoking wet»: respiratory failure related to smoking tainted marijuana cigarettes. Texas Heart Institute Journal, 40(1), 64-67.
- Goldman, D., Weinberger, D.R., Malhotra, A.K., Goldberg, T.E. (2009). The role of COMT Val158Met in cognition. Biological Psychiatry, 65(1):e1-2. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.07.032.
- Goldschmidt, L., Richardson, G. A., Willford, J. et Day, N. L. (2008). Prenatal marijuana exposure and intelligence test performance at age 6. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(3), 254-263. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e318160b3f0
- Goodman, J. et Packard, M. G. (2015). The influence of cannabinoids on learning and memory processes of the dorsal striatum. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 125, 1-14. doi: doi :10.1016/j.nlm.2015.06.008
- Grant, I., Gonzalez, R., Carey, C. L., Natarajan, L. et Wolfson, T. (2003). Nonacute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: a meta-analytic study. Journal of the International Neuropsychology Society, 9(5), 679-689. doi:10.1017/s1355617703950016
- Hanson, K. L., Winward, J. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Medina, K. L., Brown, S. A. et Tapert, S. F. (2010). Longitudinal study of cognition among adolescent marijuana users over three weeks of abstinence. Addictive Behaviors, 35(11), 970-976. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.012
- Harley, M., Kelleher, I., Clarke, M., Lynch, F., Arseneault, L., Connor, D., … Cannon, M. (2010). Cannabis use and childhood trauma interact additively to increase the risk of psychotic symptoms in adolescence. Psychological Medicine, 40(10), 1627-1634. doi: 10.1017/s0033291709991966
- Hart, C. L., van Gorp, W., Haney, M., Foltin, R. W. et Fischman, M. W. (2001). Effects of acute smoked marijuana on complex cognitive performance. Neuropsychopharmacology, 25(5), 757-765. doi: S0893-133X(01)00273-1 [pii]10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00273-1
- Hartman, R. L. et Huestis, M. A. (2013). Cannabis effects on driving skills. Clinical Chemistry, 59(3), 478-492. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2012.194381
- Heishman, S. J., Huestis, M. A., Henningfield, J. E. et Cone, E. J. (1990). Acute and residual effects of marijuana: profiles of plasma THC levels, physiological, subjective, and performance measures. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 37(3), 561-565.
- Henquet, C., Rosa, A., Krabbendam, L., Papiol, S., Fananás, L., Drukker, M., Ramaekers, J.G., van Os, J. (2006). An experimental study of catechol-o-methyltransferase Val158Met moderation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced effects on psychosis and cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31(12):2748-57.
- Heron, J., Barker, E. D., Joinson, C., Lewis, G., Hickman, M., Munafo, M. et Macleod, J. (2013). Childhood conduct disorder trajectories, prior risk factors and cannabis use at age 16: birth cohort study. Addiction, 108(12), 2129-2138. doi: 10.1111/add.12268
- Hickman, M., Vickerman, P., Macleod, J., Lewis, G., Zammit, S., Kirkbride, J. et Jones, P. (2009). If cannabis caused schizophrenia--how many cannabis users may need to be prevented in order to prevent one case of schizophrenia? England and Wales calculations. Addiction, 104(11), 1856-1861. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02736.x
- Holland, J. A., Nelson, L., Ravikumar, P. R. et Elwood, W. N. (1998). Embalming fluid-soaked marijuana: new high or new guise for PCP? Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30(2), 215-219. doi: 10.1080/02791072.1998.10399693
- Hopfer, C. J., Lessem, J. M., Hartman, C. A., Stallings, M. C., Cherny, S. S., Corley, R. P., … Crowley, T. J. (2007). A genome-wide scan for loci influencing adolescent cannabis dependence symptoms: evidence for linkage on chromosomes 3 and 9. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 89(1), 34-41. doi: S0376-8716(06)00435-2 [pii]10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.11.015
- Houston, J. E., Murphy, J., Adamson, G., Stringer, M. et Shevlin, M. (2008). Childhood sexual abuse, early cannabis use, and psychosis: testing an interaction model based on the National Comorbidity Survey. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(3), 580-585. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbm127
- Huizink, A. C. (2014). Prenatal cannabis exposure and infant outcomes: overview of studies. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacological and Biological Psychiatry, 52, 45-52. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.09.014
- Institut de la statistique du Québec (2014). Enquête québécoise sur le tabac, l’alcool, la drogue et le jeu chez les élèves du secondaire, 2013. Évolution des comportements au cours des 15 dernières années. Québec, Québec : Gouvernement du Québec.
- Iseger, T. A. et Bossong, M. G. (2015). A systematic review of the antipsychotic properties of cannabidiol in humans. Schizophrenia Research, 162(1-3), 153-161. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.01.033
- James, A., James, C. et Thwaites, T. (2013). The brain effects of cannabis in healthy adolescents and in adolescents with schizophrenia: a systematic review. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 214(3), 181-189. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.07.012
- Jutras-Aswad, D., DiNieri, J. A., Harkany, T. et Hurd, Y. L. (2009). Neurobiological consequences of maternal cannabis on human fetal development and its neuropsychiatric outcome. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 259(7), 395-412. doi: 10.1007/s00406-009-0027-z
- Jutras-Aswad, D., Zang, G. et Bruneau, J. (2010). Cannabis use correlates of syringe sharing among injection drug users. The American Journal on Addictions, 19(3), 231-237. doi: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00031.x
- Kano, M., Ohno-Shosaku, T., Hashimotodani, Y., Uchigashima, M. et Watanabe, M. (2009). Endocannabinoid-mediated control of synaptic transmission. Physiological Reviews, 89(1), 309-380. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00019.2008
- Kelly, E. V., Newton, N. C., Stapinski, L. A., Slade, T., Barrett, E. L., Conrod, P. J. et Teesson, M. (2015). Concurrent and prospective associations between bullying victimization and substance use among Australian adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 154(2015), 63-68. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.012
- Kirilly, E., Hunyady, L. et Bagdy, G. (2013). Opposing local effects of endocannabinoids on the activity of noradrenergic neurons and release of noradrenaline: relevance for their role in depression and in the actions of CB(1) receptor antagonists. Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna), 120(1), 177-186. doi: 10.1007/s00702-012-0900-1
- Koskinen, J., Lohonen, J., Koponen, H., Isohanni, M. et Miettunen, J. (2010). Rate of cannabis use disorders in clinical samples of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36(6), 1115-1130. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp031 sbp031 [pii]
- Kosty, D. B., Farmer, R. F., Seeley, J. R., Gau, J. M., Duncan, S. C. et Lewinsohn, P. M. (2015). Parental transmission of risk for cannabis use disorders to offspring. Addiction, 110(7), 1110-1117. doi: 10.1111/add.12914
- Kuepper, R., van Os, J., Lieb, R., Wittchen, H.-U., Höfler, M. et Henquet, C. (2011). Continued cannabis use and risk of incidence and persistence of psychotic symptoms: 10 year follow-up cohort study. The British Medicine Journal, 342, d738. doi :10.1136/bmj.d738
- Large, M., Sharma, S., Compton, M. T., Slade, T. et Nielssen, O. (2011). Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis: a systematic meta-analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(6), 555-561. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.5
- Legleye, S., Beck, F., Khlat, M., Peretti-Watel, P. et Chau, N. (2012). The influence of socioeconomic status on cannabis use among French adolescents. The Journal of Adolescent Health: official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 50(4), 395-402. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.08.004
- Loberg, E. M., Helle, S., Nygard, M., Berle, J. O., Kroken, R. A. et Johnsen, E. (2014). The Cannabis Pathway to Non-Affective Psychosis may Reflect Less Neurobiological Vulnerability. Front Psychiatry, 5, 159. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00159
- Lopez-Quintero, C., Perez de los Cobos, J., Hasin, D. S., Okuda, M., Wang, S., Grant, B. F. et Blanco, C. (2011). Probability and predictors of transition from first use to dependence on nicotine, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine: results of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 115(1-2), 120-130. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.004
- Lucas, P. G. (2008). Regulating compassion: an overview of Canada’s federal medical cannabis policy and practice. Harm Reduction Journal, 5, 5. doi: 10.1186/1477-7517-5-5
- Maccarrone, M., Bab, I., Biro, T., Cabral, G. A., Dey, S. K., Di Marzo, V., … Zimmer, A. (2015). Endocannabinoid signaling at the periphery: 50 years after THC. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 36(5), 277-296.
- Mair, C., Freisthler, B., Ponicki, W. R. et Gaidus, A. (2015). The impacts of marijuana dispensary density and neighborhood ecology on marijuana abuse and dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 154,111-116. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.019
- Manrique-Garcia, E., Zammit, S., Dalman, C., Hemmingsson, T., Andreasson, S. et Allebeck, P. (2014). Prognosis of schizophrenia in persons with and without a history of cannabis use. Psychological Medicine, 44(12), 2513-2521. doi: 10.1017/S0033291714000191
- Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R. S., … Moffitt, T. E. (2012). Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the Unites States of America, 109(40), E2657-2664. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1206820109
- Minica, C. C., Dolan, C. V., Hottenga, J. J., Pool, R., Genome of the Netherlands, C., Fedko, I. O., … Vink, J. M. (2015). Heritability, SNP- and Gene-Based Analyses of Cannabis Use Initiation and Age at Onset. Behavior Genetics, 45(5), 503-513. doi: 10.1007/s10519-015-9723-9
- Moffitt, T. E., Meier, M. H., Caspi, A.et Poulton, R. (2013). Reply to Rogeberg and Daly: No evidence that socioeconomic status or personality differences confound the association between cannabis use and IQ decline. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the Unites States of America, 110(11), E980-982.
- Montecucco, F. et Di Marzo, V. (2012). At the heart of the matter: the endocannabinoid system in cardiovascular function and dysfunction. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 33(6), 331-340. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2012.03.002
- Moore, T. H., Zammit, S., Lingford-Hughes, A., Barnes, T. R., Jones, P. B., Burke, M. et Lewis, G. (2007). Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. The Lancet, 370(9584), 319-328. doi: S0140-6736(07)61162-3 [pii] 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3
- Morena, M., Patel, S., Bains, J. S. et Hill, M. N. (2016). Neurobiological Interactions Between Stress and the Endocannabinoid System. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 80-102. doi: 10.1038/npp.2015.166
- Morley, K. I., Lynskey, M. T., Moran, P., Borschmann, R. et Winstock, A. R. (2015). Polysubstance use, mental health and high-risk behaviours: Results from the 2012 Global Drug Survey. Drug and Alcohol Review, 34(4), 427-437. doi: 10.1111/dar.12263
- Myles, N., Newall, H., Nielssen, O. et Large, M. (2012). The association between cannabis use and earlier age at onset of schizophrenia and other psychoses: meta-analysis of possible confounding factors. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 18(32), 5055-5069.
- O’Brien, M. S., Comment, L. A., Liang, K. Y. et Anthony, J. C. (2012). Does cannabis onset trigger cocaine onset? A case-crossover approach. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Resarch, 21(1), 66-75. doi: 10.1002/mpr.359
- Office des Nations unies contre la drogue et le crime (2014). World drug report 2014 (document en anglais). New York, États-Unis : Office des Nations unies contre la drogue et le crime
- Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Lynskey, M. T., Reid, S., Hemphill, S., Carlin, J. B. et Hall, W. (2007). Trajectories of adolescent alcohol and cannabis use into young adulthood. Addiction, 102(4), 607-615. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01728.x
- Pertwee, R. G. (2008). The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin. British Journal of Pharmacology, 153(2), 199-215. doi: 0707442 [pii]10.1038/sj.bjp.0707442
- Pope, H. G., Jr., Gruber, A. J., Hudson, J. I., Cohane, G., Huestis, M. A. et Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2003). Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 69(3), 303-310. doi: S0376871602003344 [pii]
- Potvin, S., Joyal, C. C., Pelletier, J. et Stip, E. (2008). Contradictory cognitive capacities among substance-abusing patients with schizophrenia: a metaanalysis. Schizophrenia Research, 100(1-3), 242-251. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2007.04.022
- Rabin, R. A., Zakzanis, K. K., Daskalakis, Z. J. et George, T. P. (2013). Effects of cannabis use status on cognitive function, in males with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Reserach, 206(2-3), 158-165. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.11.019
- Rabin, R. A., Zakzanis, K. K. et George, T. P. (2011). The effects of cannabis use on neurocognition in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 128(1-3), 111-116. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.02.017
- Ramaekers, J. G., Kauert, G., Theunissen, E. L., Toennes, S. W. et Moeller, M. R. (2009). Neurocognitive performance during acute THC intoxication in heavy and occasional cannabis users. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 23(3), 266-277. doi: 0269881108092393 [pii]10.1177/0269881108092393
- Ramaekers, J. G., Kauert, G., van Ruitenbeek, P., Theunissen, E. L., Schneider, E. et Moeller, M. R. (2006). High-Potency Marijuana Impairs Executive Function and Inhibitory Motor Control. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31(2006), 2296–2303. doi: 0893-133X/06
- Ramaekers, J. G., Moeller, M. R., van Ruitenbeek, P., Theunissen, E. L., Schneider, E. et Kauert, G. (2006). Cognition and motor control as a function of Delta9-THC concentration in serum and oral fluid: limits of impairment. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 85(2), 114-122. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.03.015
- Ranganathan, M. et D’Souza, D. C. (2006). The acute effects of cannabinoids on memory in humans: a review. Psychopharmacology, 188(2006), 425–444. doi: 10.1007/s00213-006-0508-y
- Richmond-Rakerd, L. S., Slutske, W. S., Deutsch, A. R., Lynskey, M. T., Agrawal, A., Madden, P. A., … Martin, N. G. (2015). Progression in Substance Use Initiation: A Multilevel Discordant Monozygotic Twin Design. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124(3), 596-605. doi: 10.1037/abn0000068
- Rogeberg, O. (2013). Correlations between cannabis use and IQ change in the Dunedin cohort are consistent with confounding from socioeconomic status. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the Unites States of America, 110(11), 4251-4254. doi:10.1073/pnas.1215678110
- Schreiner, A. M. et Dunn, M. E. (2012). Residual effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive performance after prolonged abstinence: a meta-analysis. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20(5), 420-429. doi: 10.1037/a0029117
- Schubart, C. D., Boks, M. P., Breetvelt, E. J., van Gastel, W. A., Groenwold, R. H., Ophoff, R. A., … Kahn, R. S. (2011). Association between cannabis and psychiatric hospitalization. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 123(5), 368-375. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01640.x
- Schubart, C. D., Sommer, I. E., van Gastel, W. A., Goetgebuer, R. L., Kahn, R. S. et Boks, M. P. (2011). Cannabis with high cannabidiol content is associated with fewer psychotic experiences. Schizophrenia Research, 130(1-3), 216-221. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2011.04.017
- Schuermeyer, J., Salomonsen-Sautel, S., Price, R. K., Balan, S., Thurstone, C., Min, S.-J. et Sakai, J. T. (2014). Temporal trends in marijuana attitudes, availability and use in Colorado compared to non-medical marijuana states: 2003-2011. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 140, 145–155. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.04.016
- Schulte, M. H., Cousijn, J., den Uyl, T. E., Goudriaan, A. E., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., … Wiers, R. W. (2014). Recovery of neurocognitive functions following sustained abstinence after substance dependence and implications for treatment. Clin Psychological Review, 34(7), 531-550. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2014.08.002
- Sevigny, E. (2013). Is today’s marijuana more potent simply because it’s fresher? Drug Test Analogy, 5(1), 62-67. doi: 10.1002
- Sevigny, E., Pacula, R. L. et Heathon, P. (2014). The effects of medical marijuana laws on potency. International Journal of Drug Policy, 25(2014), 308-319.
- Statistique Canada. (2013). Enquête canadienne sur le tabac, l’alcool et les drogues (ECTAD) : Sommaire des résultats pour 2013. Repéré à http://canadiensensante.gc.ca/science-research-sciences-recherches/datadonnees/ctads-ectad/summary-sommaire-2013-fra.php?_ga=1.86276061.493773395.1410188345.
- Stinson, F. S., Ruan, W. J., Pickering, R. et Grant, B. F. (2006). Cannabis use disorders in the USA: prevalence, correlates and co-morbidity. Psychological Medicine, 36(10), 1447-1460. doi: 10.1017/S0033291706008361
- Stone, J. M., Fisher, H. L., Major, B., Chisholm, B., Woolley, J., Lawrence, J., … Young, A. H. (2014). Cannabis use and first-episode psychosis: relationship with manic and psychotic symptoms, and with age at presentation. Psychological Medicine, 44(3), 499-506. doi: 10.1017/s0033291713000883
- Takagi, M., Yucel, M., Cotton, S. M., Baliz, Y., Tucker, A., Elkins, K. et Lubman, D. I. (2011). Verbal memory, learning, and executive functioning among adolescent inhalant and cannabis users. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(1), 96-105.
- ter Bogt, T., Schmid, H., Gabhainn, S.N., Fotiou, A. et Vollebergh, W. (2006). Economic and cultural correlates of cannabis use among mid-adolescents in 31 countries. Addiction, 101(2), 241-51.
- Tunbridge, E.M., Dunn, G., Murray, R.M., Evans, N., Lister, R., Stumpenhorst, K., … Freeman, D. (2015). Genetic moderation of the effects of cannabis: catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) affects the impact of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on working memory performance but not on the occurrence of psychotic experiences. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(11),1146-51. doi: 10.1177/0269881115609073.
- Tzilos, G. K., Reddy, M. K., Caviness, C. M., Anderson, B. J. et Stein, M. D. (2014). Getting higher: co-occurring drug use among marijuana-using emerging adults. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 33(3), 202-209. doi:10.1080/10550887.2014.950024
- Van Dam, N. T., Bedi, G. et Earleywine, M. (2012). Characteristics of clinically anxious versus non-anxious regular, heavy marijuana users. Addictive Behaviors, 37(11), 1217-1223. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.05.021
- van der Meer, F. J. et Velthorst, E. (2015). Course of cannabis use and clinical outcome in patients with non-affective psychosis: a 3-year follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 45(9), 1977-1988. doi: 10.1017/S0033291714003092
- van der Pol, P., Liebregts, N., de Graaf, R., Korf, D. J., van den Brink, W. et van Laar, M. (2013). Reliability and validity of the Severity of Dependence Scale for detecting cannabis dependence in frequent cannabis users. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 22(2), 138-143. doi: 10.1002/mpr.1385
- van der Pol, P., Liebregts, N., Brunt, T., van Amsterdam, J., de Graaf, R., Korf, D. J., … van Laar, M. (2014). Cross-sectional and prospective relation of cannabis potency, dosing and smoking behaviour with cannabis dependence: an ecological study. Addiction, 109(7), 1101-1109. doi:10.1111/add.12508
- van Heugten-Van der Kloet, D., Giesbrecht, T., van Wel, J., Bosker, W. M., Kuypers, K. P., Theunissen, E. L., … Ramaekers, J. G. (2015). MDMA, cannabis, and cocaine produce acute dissociative symptoms. Psychiatry Research, 228(3), 907-912. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.04.028
- van Leeuwen, A. P., Verhulst, F. C., Reijneveld, S. A., Vollebergh, W. A., Ormel, J. et Huizink, A. C. (2011). Can the gateway hypothesis, the common liability model and/or, the route of administration model predict initiation of cannabis use during adolescence? A survival analysis--the TRAILS study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(1), 73-78. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.05.008
- van Os, J., Linscott, R. J., Myin-Germeys, I., Delespaul, P. et Krabbendam, L. (2009). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness-persistence-impairment model of psychotic disorder. Psychological Medicine, 39(2), 179-195. doi: 10.1017/s0033291708003814
- van Winkel, R. et Kuepper, R. (2014). Epidemiological, neurobiological, and genetic clues to the mechanisms linking cannabis use to risk for nonaffective psychosis. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 767-791. doi: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153631
- Vardakou, I., Pistos, C. et Spiliopoulou, C. (2010). Spice drugs as a new trend: Mode of action, identification and legislation. Toxicology Letters, 197, 157–162.
- Verdejo-Garcia, A., Fagundo, A. B., Cuenca, A., Rodriguez, J., Cuyas, E., Langohr, K., … De la Torre, R. (2013). COMT val158met and 5-HTTLPR genetic polymorphisms moderate executive control in cannabis users. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38(8), 1598-1606. doi: 10.1038/npp.2013.59
- Verweij, K. J. H., Zietsch, B. P., Lynskey, M. T., Medland, S. E., Neale, M. C., Martin, N. G., … Vink, J. M. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on cannabis use initiation and problematic use: a meta-analysis of twin studies. Addiction, 105(3), 417–430. doi :10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02831.x
- Volkow, N.D., Hampson A.J., et Baler R.D. (2017). Don’t Worry, Be Happy: Endocannabinoids and Cannabis at the Intersection of Stress and Reward. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 57, 285-308. doi: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010716-104615.
- Wilkinson, S. T., Radhakrishnan, R. et D’Souza, D. C. (2014). Impact of Cannabis Use on the Development of Psychotic Disorders. Current Addiction Report, 1(2), 115-128. doi: 10.1007/s40429-014-0018-7
- Winton-Brown, T. T., Allen, P., Bhattacharyya, S., Borgwardt, S. J., Fusar-Poli, P., Crippa, J. A., … McGuire, P. K. (2011). Modulation of auditory and visual processing by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol: an FMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36(7), 1340-1348. doi: 10.1038/npp.2011.17
- Wittchen, H. U., Frohlich, C., Behrendt, S., Gunther, A., Rehm, J., Zimmermann, P., … Perkonigg, A. (2007). Cannabis use and cannabis use disorders and their relationship to mental disorders: a 10-year prospective longitudinal community study in adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependance, 88 Suppl 1, S60-70. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.12.013
- Yucel, M., Bora, E., Lubman, D. I., Solowij, N., Brewer, W. J., Cotton, S. M., … Pantelis, C. (2012). The impact of cannabis use on cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of existing findings and new data in a first-episode sample. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(2), 316-330. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbq079
- Zaman, T., Malowney, M., Knight, J. et Boyd, J. W. (2015). Co-Occurrence of Substance-Related and Other Mental Health Disorders Among Adolescent Cannabis Users. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 9(4), 317-321. doi:10.1097/ADM.0000000000000138
- Zhou, Y., Falenta, K. et Lalli, G. (2014). Endocannabinoid signalling in neuronal migration. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, 47(2014), 104-108. doi: 10.1016/j.biocel.2013.12.007
- Zuurman, L., Ippel, A. E., Moin, E. et van Gerven, J. M. (2009). Biomarkers for the effects of cannabis and THC in healthy volunteers. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 67(1), 5-21. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2008.03329.x