Abstracts
Résumé
Si l’on se penche sur les études portant sur l’usage de caméras portatives par les forces policières, on constate que le corpus est minime, et qu’il examine surtout d’éventuels effets dissuasifs de ces dispositifs quant au recours à la force par les policiers, et quant au comportement des citoyens lors des interactions avec ces derniers. La présente étude prend appui sur nos précédents travaux, sur des preuves empiriques ainsi que sur quelques anecdotes pertinentes afin d’illustrer trois enjeux méconnus de la question des caméras portatives, problématiques qui participent à encourager actuellement leur utilisation. Ces trois enjeux sont : 1) le marketing et la vente de caméras portatives auprès des forces de l’ordre ; 2) l’utilisation d’enregistrements provenant de ces caméras à des fins promotionnelles pour la police ; 3 le recours aux preuves visuelles à la cour, qui impliquent de plus en plus souvent des enregistrements de caméras portées par des policiers. Bien comprendre ces trois problématiques à la lumière de données empiriques demeure nécessaire afin d’avoir un regard critique sur les raisons pour lesquelles les forces de l’ordre ont recours aux caméras portatives et sur les manières dont elles les utilisent. Le présent article offrira en conclusion une courte discussion et des pistes pour des travaux subséquents.
Mots-clés :
- Caméras portatives,
- preuves visuelles,
- travail de l’image,
- Axon
Abstract
A review of research on police body-worn cameras (BWCs) reveals that the focus of most studies was narrow and dealt mainly with the possible deterrent effects of BWCs on use of force by police and (mis)behavior by citizens during police-citizen interactions. This paper draws on our published research and the available empirical evidence as well as a few relevant anecdotes to shed light on three woefully under-researched areas relevant to the current support and use of BWCs. These areas are : (1) the marketing and sale of body-camera technology to law enforcement, (2) the use of body-camera footage in police promotional materials, and, last, (3) the use of visual evidence in the courtroom, which increasingly includes materials from police BWCs. We argue that increased understanding of these three areas, supported by additional empirical data, is necessary for a more rounded and critical awareness of how and why BWCs are being implemented by law enforcement agencies. We conclude with a short discussion and offer a few suggestions for future research.
Keywords:
- Body-worn cameras,
- Axon,
- image work,
- visual evidence
Resumen
Una revisión de la extensa investigación sobre las cámaras de la policía llevadas en el cuerpo, revela que la literatura es cerrada, enfocándose principalmente en los posibles efectos disuasivos que las cámaras puedan tener en el uso de la fuerza por la policía, y en la (mala) conducta del ciudadano durante las interacciones entre policías y ciudadanos. Este artículo se basa en nuestra investigación publicada, y en la evidencia empírica disponible, así como en unas pocas anécdotas temáticas relevantes, para ayudar a ilustrar tres áreas, lamentablemente, poco investigadas que subrayan el actual apoyo y el uso de las cámaras. Estas áreas son : 1) el marketing y la venta de tecnologías de cámaras personales para el cumplimiento de la ley ; 2) el uso de imágenes de cámaras corporales como materiales promocionales de la policía ; 3) el uso de pruebas visuales en las cortes que incluye cada vez más materiales tomados de cámaras corporales de la policía. Argumentamos que un conocimiento de estas tres áreas, soportado por datos empíricos tradicionales, sigue siendo necesario para tener una conciencia más completa y crítica de cómo y cuándo las cámaras corporales llevadas en el cuerpo del policía están siendo implementadas por las fuerzas del orden. Concluimos con una corta discusión y ofrecemos algunas sugerencias para futuras investigaciones.
Palabras clave:
- Cámaras corporales llevadas en el cuerpo,
- Axon,
- trabajo de imagen,
- pruebas visuales
Appendices
Références
- Adams, I. et Mastracci, S. (2019). Police body-worn cameras : Effects on officers’ burnout and perceived organizational support. Police quarterly, 22(1), 5-30.
- Ariel, B. (2016). Increasing cooperation with the police using body worn cameras. Police quarterly, 19(3), 326-362.
- Ariel, B., Farrar, W. A. et Sutherland, A. (2015). The effect of police body-worn cameras on use of force and citizens’ complaints against the police : A randomized controlled trial. Journal of quantitative criminology, 31(3), 509-535.
- Ariel, B., Sutherland, A., Henstock, D., Young, J., Drover, P., Sykes, J.,… Henderson, R. (2016). Wearing body cameras increases assaults against officers and does not reduce police use of force : Results from a global multi-site experiment. European journal of criminology, 13(6), 744-755.
- Ariel, B., Sutherland, A., Henstock, D., Young, J., Drover, P., Sykes, J.,… Henderson, R. (2017). “Contagious accountability” : A global multisite randomized controlled trial on the effect of police body-worn cameras on citizens’ complaints against the police. Criminal justice and behavior, 44(2), 293-316.
- Axon Enterprise Inc. (2012, 2 avril). Mesa Police Department pre-orders AXON Flex on-officer cameras. Repéré à https://investor.axon.com/press-releases/press-release-details/2012/Mesa-Police-Department-Pre-Orders-AXON-Flex-On-Officer-Cameras/default.aspx
- Axon Enterprise Inc. (2014, 30 septembre). London Met Police extending AXON body-worn camera pilot to front line officers. Repéré à https://investor.axon.com/press-releases/press-release-details/2014/London-Met-Police-Extending-AXON-Body-Worn-Camera-Pilot-to-Front-Line-Officers/default.aspx
- Axon Enterprise Inc. (2016, 13 juillet). San Jose Police Department to deploy 963 Axon Body 2 Cameras on Evidence.com. Repéré à https://investor.axon.com/press-releases/press-release-details/2016/San-Jose-Police-Department-to-Deploy-963-Axon-Body-2-Cameras-on-Evidencecom/default.aspx
- Axon Enterprise Inc. (2016, 21 septembre). Atlanta Police Department to deploy 1,015 Axon body cameras and unlimited data storage on Evidence.com. Repéré à https://investor.axon.com/press-releases/press-release-details/2016/Atlanta-Police-Department-To-Deploy-1015-Axon-Body-Cameras-and-Unlimited-Data-Storage-on-Evidencecom/default.aspx
- Axon Enterprise Inc. (2020, 10 mars). Axon is a market-leading provider of law enforcement technology. Repéré à https://investor.axon.com/home/default.aspx
- Boivin, R., Gendron, A., Faubert, C. et Poulin, B. (2017). The body-worn camera perspective bias. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(1), 125-142.
- Bosman, J., Smith, M. et Wines, M. (2017, 25 juin). Jurors find video isn’t providing 20/20 vision in police shootings. New York Times. Repéré à https://nyti.ms/2t74ew8
- Braga, A. A., Coldren, J. R., Sousa, W. H., Rodriguez, D. et Alper, O. (2017). The benefits of body-worn cameras : New findings from a randomized controlled trial at the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department. CNA Analysis & Solutions.
- Bullock, K. (2018). (Re)presenting ‘order’ online : The construction of police presentational strategies on social media. Policing and society, 28(3), 345-359.
- CBC News. (2019, 1er février). Leading maker of body cams disputes Montreal police cost estimates. CBC News. Repéré à https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/montreal-police-body-cameras-1.5001814
- Clare, J., Henstock, D., McComb, C., Newland, R. et Barnes, G. C. (2019). The results of a randomized controlled trial of police body-worn video in Australia. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-019-09387-w
- Dixon, D. (2006). “A window into the interviewing process ?” The audio-visual recording of police interrogation in New South Wales, Australia. Policing & Society, 16(4), 323-348.
- Doyle, A. (2003). Arresting images : Crime and policing in front of the television camera. University of Toronto Press.
- Elsey, C., Mair, M. et Kolanoski, M. (2018). Violence as work : Ethnomethodological insights into military combat operations. Psychology of violence, 8(3), 316-328.
- Ericson, R. V. (1982). Reproducing order : A study of police patrol work (vol. 5). University of Toronto Press.
- Ericson, R. V. (1991). Mass media, crime, law, and justice : An institutional approach. The British Journal of Criminology, 31(3), 219-249.
- Fishman, M. (1980). Manufacturing the news. University of Texas Press.
- Gaub, J. E., Choate, D. E., Todak, N., Katz, C. M. et White, M. D. (2016). Officer perceptions of body-worn cameras before and after deployment : A study of three departments. Police quarterly, 19(3), 275-302.
- Glasbeek, H. J. et Rowland, S. (1979). Are injuring and killing at work crimes. Osgoode Hall LJ, 17, 506-594.
- Goldsmith, A. J. (2010). Policing’s new visibility. The British Journal of Criminology, 50(5), 914-934.
- Goodwin, C. (1994). Professional vision. American Anthropologist, 96(3), 606-633.
- Harris, D. A. (2010). Picture this : Body-worn video devices (heads cams) as tools for ensuring fourth amendment compliance by police. Tex. Tech L. Rev., 43, 357-371.
- Headley, A. M., Guerette, R. T. et Shariati, A. (2017). A field experiment of the impact of body-worn cameras (BWCs) on police officer behavior and perceptions. Journal of Criminal Justice, 53, 102-109.
- Hester, S. et Eglin, P. (2017). A sociology of crime (2e éd.). Abingdon, Royaume-Uni : Routledge.
- Jennings, W. G., Lynch, M. D. et Fridell, L. A. (2015). Evaluating the impact of police officer body-worn cameras (BWCs) on response-to-resistance and serious external complaints : Evidence from the Orlando police department (OPD) experience utilizing a randomized controlled experiment. Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(6), 480-486.
- Laming, E. (2019). Police use of body worn cameras. Police Practice and Research, 20(2), 201‑216. 10.1080/15614263.2018.1558586
- Laming, E. et Schneider, C. J. (sous presse). Police body-worn cameras and Axon Enterprises’ public claims in media. Studies in Symbolic Interaction.
- Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. et Sullivan Buker, G. (2017). “I’m giving you a lawful order” : Dialogic legitimacy in Sandra Bland’s traffic stop. Law & Society Review, 51(2), 379-412.
- Lum, C., Koper, C. S., Merola, L., Scherer, A. et Reioux, A. (2015). Existing and ongoing body worn camera research : Knowledge gaps and opportunities (Report for the Laura and John Arnold Foundation). Fairfax, VA : Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, George Mason University.
- Lum, C., Stoltz, M., Koper, C. S. et Scherer, J. A. (2019). Research on body-worn cameras : What we know, what we need to know. Criminology & Public Policy, 18(1), 93-118.
- Lynch, M. (1982). Closure and disclosure in pre-trial argument. Human Studies, 5(4), 285-318.
- Maghan, J., O’Reilly, G. W. et Shon, P. C. H. (2002). Technology, policing, and implications of in-car videos. Police Quarterly, 5(1), 25-42.
- Manning, P. K. (1978). The police : Mandate, strategies and appearances. Dans P. L. Manning et J. van Maanan (dir.), Policing : A view from the street (p. 97-125). Santa Monica, CA : Goodyear.
- Manning, P. K. (1997). Police work : The social organization of policing (2e éd.). Prospect Heights, IL : Waveland Press.
- Maskaly, J., Donner, C., Jennings, W. G., Ariel, B. et Sutherland, A. (2017). The effects of body-worn cameras (BWCs) on police and citizen outcomes : A state-of-the-art review. Policing : An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40(4), 672-688.
- Mateescu, A. et Rosenblat, A. (2016). Dreams of accountability, guaranteed surveillance : The promises and costs of body-worn cameras. Surveillance & Society, 14(1), 122-127.
- Mawby, R. C. (2002). Policing images : Policing, communications and legitimacy. Cullompton, Royaume-Uni : Willan.
- Mawby, R. C. (2014). The presentation of police in everyday life : Police-press relations, impression management and the Leveson Inquiry. Crime, Media, Culture, 10(3), 239-257.
- Morrow, W. J., Katz, C. M. et Choate, D. E. (2016). Assessing the impact of police body-worn cameras on arresting, prosecuting, and convicting suspects of intimate partner violence. Police quarterly, 19(3), 303-325.
- Neuendorf, K. A. et Kumar, A. (2015). Content analysis. The international encyclopedia of political communication, 1-10.
- Nowacki, J. S. et Willits, D. (2018). Adoption of body cameras by United States police agencies : An organisational analysis. Policing and Society, 28(7), 841-853.
- Owens, C., Mann, D. et Mckenna, R. (2014). The Essex body worn video trial.The impact of body worn video on criminal justice outcomes of domestic abuse incidents. Essex, Royaume-Uni : College of Policing.
- Rai, T. S. (2019). Body cameras and police misconduct. Science, 365(6450), 246-247.
- Ready, J. T. et Young, J. T. (2015). The impact of on-officer video cameras on police-citizen contacts : Findings from a controlled experiment in Mesa, AZ. Journal of experimental criminology, 11(3), 445-458.
- Sacks, H. (1992). Lectures in conversation. Oxford, Royaume-Uni : Blackwell.
- Sandhu, A. (2019). ‘I’m glad that was on camera’ : A case study of police officers’ perceptions of cameras. Policing and society, 29(2), 223-235.
- Schneider, C. J. (2016). Policing and social media : Social control in an era of new media. Lanham, MD : Lexington Books. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Schneider, C. J. (2018a). Body worn cameras and police image work : News media coverage of the Rialto Police Department’s body worn camera experiment. Crime, Media, Culture, 14(3) 449-466.
- Schneider, C. J. (2018b). An exploratory study of public perceptions of police conduct depicted in body worn camera footage on YouTube. Annual Review of Interdisciplinary Justice Research, 7, 118-148.
- Schneider, C. J. et Trottier, D. (2012). The 2011 Vancouver riot and the role of Facebook in crowd-sourced policing. BC Studies : The British Columbian Quarterly, (175), 57-72.
- Smykla, J. O., Crow, M. S., Crichlow, V. J. et Snyder, J. A. (2016). Police body-worn cameras : Perceptions of law enforcement leadership. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(3), 424-443.
- Surrette, R. (2015). Media, crime, and criminal justice (5e éd.). Stamford, CT : Nelson.
- Valiante, G. (2019, 10 février). Montreal rejects body cameras for police officers. Globe and Mail. Repéré à https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-montreal-rejects-body-cameras-for-police-officers/
- Valverde, M. (2003). Law’s dream of a common knowledge. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press.
- Wallace, D., White, M. D., Gaub, J. E. et Todak, N. (2018). Body-worn cameras as a potential source of depolicing : Testing for camera-induced passivity. Criminology, 56(3), 481-509.
- Watson, P. G. (2018a). The documentary method of [video] interpretation : A paradoxical verdict in a police-involved shooting and its consequences for understanding crime on camera. Human Studies, 41(1), 121-135.
- Watson, P. G. (2018b). Representing transactions : Prosecuting a police-involved shooting with video evidence. The Annual Review of Interdisciplinary Justice Research, 7, 96-117.
- Watson, P. G. et Meehan, A. J. (sous presse). Handling video evidence of [police] violence : Theoretical versus practical analyses. Dans D. vom Lehn, N. Ruiz-Junco et W. Gibson (dir). The Routledge International Handbook of Interactionism. Londres, Royaume-Uni : Routledge.
- White, M. D. (2014). Police officer body-worn cameras : Assessing the evidence. Washington, DC : Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
- White, M. D., Gaub, J. E. et Todak, N. (2017). Exploring the potential for body-worn cameras to reduce violence in police–citizen encounters. Policing : A Journal of Policy and Practice, 11(3), 1-11.
- White, M. D. et Malm, A. (2020). Cops, cameras, and crisis. NYU Press.
- Wolfe, L. (2020, 7 janvier). Press releases and their purpose. The Balance of Small Business.Repéré à https://www.thebalancesmb.com/what-is-a-press-release-3515529
- WOLFCOM. (2019, 17 octobre). City of Norway P.D. uses and recommends WOLFCOM body cameras. Repéré à https://wolfcomusa.com/city-of-norway-p-d-uses-and-recommends-wolfcom-body-cameras/
- Wright, J. E. et Headley, A. M. (2020). Can technology work for policing ? Citizen perceptions of police-body worn cameras. The American Review of Public Administration, 1-11. doi : 10.1177/0275074020945632
- Yokum, D., Ravishankar, A. et Coppock, A. (2019). A randomized control trial evaluating the effects of police body-worn cameras. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(21), 10329-10332.