Abstracts
Abstract
Background: While the hidden curriculum (HC) is becoming recognized as an important component of medical education, ideal methods of assessing the HC are not well known. The aim of this study was to review the literature for methods of assessing the HC in the context of healthcare education.
Methods: We conducted a scoping review on methods to measure or assess the HC in accordance with the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis. Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, and ProQuest ERIC databases were searched from inception until August 2023. Studies which focused on healthcare education, including medicine, as well as other professions such as nursing, social work, pharmacy were included. We then obtained stakeholder feedback utilizing the results of this review to inform the ongoing HC assessment process within our own medical education program.
Results: Of 141 studies included for full text review, 41 were included for analysis and data extraction. Most studies were conducted in North America and qualitative in nature. Physician education was best represented with most studies set in undergraduate medical education (n = 21, 51%). Assessment techniques included interviews (n = 19, 46%), cross-sectional surveys (n = 14, 34%), written reflections (n = 7, 17%), and direct observation of the working environment (n = 2, 5%). While attempts to create standardized HC evaluation methods were identified, there were no examples of implementation into an educational program formally or longitudinally. No studies reported on actions taken based on evaluation results. Confidential stakeholder feedback was obtained from postgraduate medical learners in our program, and this feedback was then used to modify our longitudinal HC assessment process.
Conclusions: While the HC has as increasing presence in the medical education community, the ideal way to practically assess it within a healthcare education context remains unclear. We described the HC assessment process utilized at our program, which may be informative for other institutions attempting to implement a similar technique. Future attempts and studies would benefit from reporting longitudinal data and impacts of assessment results
Résumé
Contexte : Bien que le curriculum caché soit de plus en plus reconnu comme une composante importante de l'éducation médicale, ses méthodes idéales d'évaluation ne sont pas bien connues. L'objectif de cette étude était d’examiner la documentation sur les méthodes d'évaluation du curriculum caché dans le contexte de la formation dans les domaines de la santé.
Méthodes : Nous avons effectué un examen de la documentation sur les méthodes de mesure ou d'évaluation du curriculum caché conformément au JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis. Les bases de données Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE et ProQuest ERIC ont été consultées depuis le début jusqu'à août 2023. Les études portant sur l'enseignement des soins de santé, y compris la médecine, ainsi que sur d'autres professions telles que les soins infirmiers, le travail social et la pharmacie ont été incluses. Nous avons ensuite recueilli les commentaires des parties prenantes en utilisant les résultats de cette étude pour orienter le processus d'évaluation continue du curriculum caché au sein de notre propre programme d'éducation médicale.
Résultats : Sur les 141 études retenues pour l'examen du texte intégral, 41 ont été retenues pour l'analyse et l'extraction des données. La plupart des études ont été menées en Amérique du Nord et sont de nature qualitative. La formation des médecins était la mieux représentée, la plupart des études portant sur la formation médicale de premier cycle (n = 21, 51 %). Les techniques d'évaluation comprenaient des entretiens (n = 19, 46 %), des enquêtes transversales (n = 14, 34 %), des réflexions écrites (n = 7, 17 %) et l'observation directe du milieu de travail (n = 2, 5 %). Bien que des tentatives de création de méthodes d'évaluation normalisées du curriculum caché aient été identifiées, il n'y avait pas d'exemples de déploiement dans un programme d'enseignement de manière officielle ou longitudinale. Aucune étude n'a fait état de mesures prises basées sur les résultats de l'évaluation. Des commentaires confidentiels ont été recueillis auprès des apprenants en médecine de niveau postdoctoral de notre programme. Ces commentaires ont ensuite été utilisés pour modifier notre processus d'évaluation longitudinale du curriculum caché.
Conclusions : Bien que le curriculum caché soit de plus en plus présent au sein de l'éducation médicale, la façon idéale de l'évaluer de manière pratique dans un contexte de formation dans les domaines de la santé n'est pas encore claire. Nous avons décrit le processus d'évaluation du curriculum caché utilisé dans notre programme, ce qui peut être instructif pour d'autres établissements qui tentent de mettre en œuvre une technique similaire. Les futures tentatives et études bénificieraient de faire état de données longitudinales et de l'impact des résultats de l'évaluation.
Download the article in PDF to read it.
Download
Appendices
Bibliography
- Lawrence C, Mhlaba T, Stewart KA, Moletsane R, Gaede B, Moshabela M. The hidden curricula of medical education: a scoping review. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2018 Apr;93(4):648–56. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000002004
- Sarikhani Y, Shojaei P, Rafiee M, Delavari S. Analyzing the interaction of main components of hidden curriculum in medical education using interpretive structural modeling method. BMC Med Educ. 2020 Jun 1;20:176. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02094-5
- Zgheib NK, Dimassi Z, Arawi T, Badr KF, Sabra R. Effect of targeted curricular reform on the learning environment, student empathy, and hidden curriculum in a medical school: a 7-year longitudinal study. J Med Educ Curric Dev. 2020 Aug 27;7:2382120520953106. https://doi.org/10.1177/2382120520953106
- Billings ME, Lazarus ME, Wenrich M, Curtis JR, Engelberg RA. The effect of the hidden curriculum on resident burnout and cynicism. J Grad Med Educ. 2011 Dec;3(4):503–10. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-11-00044.1
- Brown MEL, Coker O, Heybourne A, Finn GM. Exploring the hidden curriculum’s impact on medical students: professionalism, identity formation and the need for transparency. Med Sci Educ. 2020 Jul 24;30(3):1107–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-020-01021-z
- Canadian Residency Accreditation Consortium C. General Standards of Accreditation for Residency Programs. 2020. Available from: https://www.royalcollege.ca/content/dam/documents/accreditation/competence-by-design/non-resource-documents/canera/general-standards-accreditation-for-residency-programs-e.html#standard_9
- Braund H, Patel V, Dalgarno N, Mann S. Exploring residents’ perceptions of competency-based medical education across Canada: a national survey study. MedEdPublish. 2024 Jan 8;14:2. https://doi.org/10.12688/mep.19247.1
- Nidumolu A, Freedman D, Bosma M. From theory to practice: development and evaluation of a quality improvement curriculum for psychiatry residents. J Med Educ Curric Dev. 2024 Jan;11:23821205241228200. https://doi.org/10.1177/23821205241228200
- Peters M, Godfrey C, McInerney P, Munn Z, Trico A, Khalil H. Chapter 11: scoping reviews. In: Aromataris E, Munn Z, editors. JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis. JBI; 2020. https://doi.org/10.46658/JBIRM-20-01
- George Li. A scoping review on measuring the hidden curriculum in medical education. 2022. Available from: https://osf.io/tbkaf [Accessed Apr 4, 2024].
- Lee CA, Wilkinson TJ, Timmermans JA, Ali AN, Anakin MG. Revealing the impact of the hidden curriculum on faculty teaching: a qualitative study. Med Educ. 2023;57(8):761–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.15026
- Wear D, Skillicorn J. Hidden in plain sight: the formal, informal, and hidden curricula of a psychiatry clerkship. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2009;84(4):451–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e31819a80b7
- Howard F, McKneally MF, Upshur REG, Levin AV. The formal and informal surgical ethics curriculum: views of resident and staff surgeons in Toronto. Am J Surg. 2012;203(2):258–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2011.02.008
- McKenna L, Williams B. The hidden curriculum in near-peer learning: an exploratory qualitative study. Nurse Educ Today. 2017;50(ned, 8511379):77–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2016.12.010
- Choo Hwee P, Hwee Sing K, Yong Hwang MK, Mei AHY. The informal curriculum: what do junior doctors learn from a palliative care rotation?. BMJ Support Palliat Care. 2020;10(1):114–7. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjspcare-2018-001625
- St-Amant O, Sutherland N. Unpacking the hidden curriculum in nursing education: clinical placements abroad. Int J Nurs Educ Scholarsh. 2020;17(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/ijnes-2019-0128
- Lempp H, Seale C. The hidden curriculum in undergraduate medical education: qualitative study of medical students’ perceptions of teaching. Br Med J. 2004;329(7469):770–3. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.329.7469.770
- Ozolins I, Hall H, Peterson R. The student voice: recognising the hidden and informal curriculum in medicine. Med Teach. 2008;30(6):606–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590801949933
- Lamiani G, Leone D, Meyer EC, Moja EA. How Italian students learn to become physicians: a qualitative study of the hidden curriculum. Med Teach. 2011;33(12):989–96. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2011.577467
- Mossop L, Dennick R, Hammond R, Robbe I. Analysing the hidden curriculum: use of a cultural web. Med Educ. 2013;47(2):134–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.12072
- Van Deven T, Hibbert K, Faden L, Chhem RK. The hidden curriculum in radiology residency programs: a path to isolation or integration? Eur J Radiol. 2013;82(5):883–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2012.12.001
- O’Brien BC, Hirsh D, Krupat E, et al. Learners, performers, caregivers, and team players: descriptions of the ideal medical student in longitudinal integrated and block clerkships. Med Teach. 2016;38(3):297–305.
- Doja A, Bould MD, Clarkin C, Eady K, Sutherland S, Writer H. The hidden and informal curriculum across the continuum of training: a cross-sectional qualitative study. Med Teach. 2016;38(4):410–8. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2015.1073241
- Gerjevic KA, Rosenbaum ME, Suneja M. Resident perceptions of the impact of duty hour restrictions on resident-attending interactions: an exploratory study. BMC Med Educ. 2017;17(1):124. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-017-0963-7
- Roder CA, May SA. The hidden curriculum of veterinary education: mediators and moderators of its effects. J Vet Med Educ. 2017;44(3):542–51. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme.0416-082
- Gardeshi Z, Amini M, Nabeiei P. The perception of hidden curriculum among undergraduate medical students: a qualitative study. BMC Res Notes. 2018;11(1):271. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-018-3385-7
- Bigdeli S, Koohestani HR, Soltani Arabshahi SK, Keshavarzi MH. Lived experiences of undergraduate medical students about hidden curriculum: a phenomenological study. Acta Med Iran. 2019;57(5):308–15. https://doi.org/10.18502/acta.v57i5.1867
- Yahyavi ST, Hoobehfekr S, Tabatabaee M. Exploring the hidden curriculum of professionalism and medical ethics in a psychiatry emergency department. Asian J Psychiatry. 2021;66((Yahyavi, Hoobehfekr, Tabatabaee) Department of Psychiatry, Roozbeh Hospital, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran, Islamic Republic of):102885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102885
- MacNeil KA, Regehr G, Holmes CL. Contributing to the hidden curriculum: exploring the role of residents and newly graduated physicians. Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2022;27(1):201–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-021-10081-8
- Cohen-Osher M, Lee AL, Erlich D. Revealing the hidden clerkship curriculum: a qualitative analysis. Fam Med. 2023;55(2):115–8. https://doi.org/10.22454/FamMed.2023.503671
- Van Huyssteen M, Bheekie A. The hidden curriculum of work-based learning for pharmacy students in public sector pharmacies in South Africa. Pharm Educ. 2017;17(1):190–8.
- Phillips CB. Student portfolios and the hidden curriculum on gender: Mapping exclusion. Med Educ. 2009;43(9):847–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03403.x
- Karnieli-Miller O, Vu TR, Holtman MC, Clyman SG, Inui TS. Medical students’ professionalism narratives: a window on the informal and hidden curriculum. Acad Med. 2010;85(1):124–33. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c42896
- Cheng L-F, Yang H-C. Learning about gender on campus: an analysis of the hidden curriculum for medical students. Med Educ. 2015;49(3):321–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.12628
- Parekh R, Jones MM, Singh S, et al. Medical students’ experience of the hidden curriculum around primary care careers: a qualitative exploration of reflective diaries. BMJ Open. 2021;11(7):e049825. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049825
- Balmer DF, Master CL, Richards B, Giardino AP. Implicit versus explicit curricula in general pediatrics education: is there a convergence? Pediatrics. 2009;124(2):e347-54. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-0170
- Doja A, Bould MD, Clarkin C, Zucker M, Writer H. Observations of the hidden curriculum on a paediatrics tertiary care clinical teaching unit. Paediatr Child Health Can. 2018;23(7):435–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/pxx206
- Grady MD, Rich Glass V, Lechner E, Naylor SM. What do MSW students say matters in MSW Programs? Results from a qualitative study of the implicit curriculum. J Soc Work Educ. 2020;56(3):560–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2019.1656585
- Grady MD, Swick DC, Powers JD. The implicit curriculum survey: an examination of the psychometric properties. J Soc Work Educ. 2018;54(2):261–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2017.1404527
- Grady MD, Powers J, Despard M, Naylor S. Measuring the implicit curriculum: initial development and results of an msw survey. J Soc Work Educ. 2011;47(3):463–87. https://doi.org/10.5175/JSWE.2011.200900119
- Peterson NA, Farmer AY, Donnelly L, Forenza B. Assessing the implicit curriculum in social work education: heterogeneity of students’ experiences and impact on professional empowerment. J Teach Soc Work. 2014;34(5):460–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/08841233.2014.955943
- Afridi A, Sethi A, Ahmed F, Kashif L. Assessment of hidden curriculum during clinical rotations of year 4 mbbs students using hidden informal curriculum assessment tool (Hicat). J Med Sci Peshawar. 2020;28(4):352–5. https://doi.org/10.52764/jms.20.28.4.10
- Haidet P, Kelly PA, Chou C, Communication C and culture study group. Characterizing the patient-centeredness of hidden curricula in medical schools: development and validation of a new measure. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2005;80(1):44–50. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200501000-00012
- Smith NA, Castanelli DJ. Measuring the clinical learning environment in anaesthesia. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2015;43(2):199–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0310057X1504300209
- Akcakoca B, Orgun F. Developing a measurement tool for evaluating the hidden curriculum in nursing education. Nurse Educ Today. 2021;97(ned, 8511379):104688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104688
- Al-Bawardy R, Blatt B, Al-Shohaib S, Simmens SJ. Cross-cultural comparison of the patient-centeredness of the hidden curriculum between a Saudi Arabian and 9 US medical schools. Med Educ Online. 2009;14((Al-Bawardy) Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA.):19. https://doi.org/10.3402/meo.v14i.4655
- Green AR, Rosu C, Kenison T, Nze C. Assessing the hidden curriculum for the care of patients with limited English proficiency: an instrument development. Educ Health Abingdon Engl. 2018;31(1):17–24. https://doi.org/10.4103/1357-6283.239042
- Ludwig B, Turk B, Seitz T, Klaus I, Loffler-Stastka H. The search for attitude-a hidden curriculum assessment from a central European perspective. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2018;130(3–4):134–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-018-1312-5
- Kaldjian LC, Shinkunas LA, Reisinger HS, Polacco MA, Perencevich EN. Attitudes about sickness presenteeism in medical training: is there a hidden curriculum? Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2019;8(1):149. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-019-0602-7
- Butler J, Kassel L, Miesner AR, Grady S, Wall GC. Incidence of a negative hidden curriculum, cynicism, and burnout within pharmacy resident education: a nationwide survey. Curr Pharm Teach Learn. 2021;13(8):922–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cptl.2021.06.001
- Hafferty FW. Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicineʼs hidden curriculum. Acad Med. 1998 Apr;73(4):403–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-199804000-00013
- The Association of Faculties of Medicine of Canada A. The Future of Medical Education in Canada (FMEC). 2010. Available from: https://cou.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/COU-Future-of-Medical-Education-in-Canada-A-Collective-Vision.pdf