Abstracts
Abstract
The residency years comprise the last period of a physician’s formal training. It is at this stage that trainees consolidate the clinical skills required for independent practice and achieve a level of ethical development essential to their work as physicians, a process known as professional identity formation (PIF). Ethics education is thought to contribute to ethical development and to that end the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) requires that formal ethics education be integrated within all postgraduate specialty training programs. However, a formal ethics curriculum can operate in parallel with informal and hidden ethics curricula, the latter being more subtle, pervasive, and influential in shaping learner attitudes and behavior. This paper reports on a study of the formal, informal, and hidden ethics curricula at two postgraduate psychiatry programs in Canada. Based on the analysis of data sources, we relate the divergences between the formal, informal, and hidden ethics curricula to two aspects of professional identity formation (PIF) during psychiatry residency training. The first is the idea of group membership. Adherence to the hidden curriculum in certain circumstances determines whether residents become part of an in-group or demonstrate a sense of belonging to that group. The second aspect of PIF we explore is the ambiguous role of the resident as a student and a practitioner. In ethically challenging situations, adherence to the messages of the hidden curriculum is influenced by and influences whether residents act as students, practitioners, or both. This paper describes the hidden curriculum in action and in interaction with PIF. Our analysis offers a complementary, empirical perspective to the theoretical literature concerning PIF in medical education. This literature tends to position sound ethical decision-making as the end result of PIF. Our analysis points out that the mechanism works in both directions: how residents respond to hidden curriculum in ethics can be a driver of professional identity formation.
Keywords:
- professional identity formation (PIF),
- ethics,
- hidden curriculum,
- postgraduate training,
- psychiatry,
- residents
Résumé
Les années de résidence comprennent la dernière période de formation officielle d’un médecin. C’est à ce stade que les stagiaires consolident les compétences cliniques requises pour une pratique indépendante et atteignent un niveau de développement éthique essentiel à leur travail de médecin, un processus appelé formation d’identité professionnelle (FIP). On pense que l’éducation à l’éthique contribue au développement de l’éthique et à cette fin, le Collège royal des médecins et chirurgiens du Canada (CRMCC) exige que l’éducation formelle en éthique soit intégrée dans tous les programmes de formation spécialisée postdoctorale. Cependant, un programme d’éthique formel peut fonctionner en parallèle avec des programmes d’éthique informels et cachés, ces derniers étant plus subtils, omniprésents et influents pour façonner les attitudes et le comportement des apprenants. Cet article fait état d’une étude des programmes d’éthique formels, informels et cachés de deux programmes de psychiatrie postdoctorale au Canada. Sur la base de l’analyse des sources de données, nous relions les divergences entre les programmes d’éthique formels, informels et cachés à deux aspects de la formation de l’identité professionnelle (FIP) pendant la formation en résidence en psychiatrie. Le premier est l’idée d’appartenance à un groupe. L’adhésion au programme caché dans certaines circonstances détermine si les résidents font partie d’un groupe ou manifestent un sentiment d’appartenance à ce groupe. Le deuxième aspect du FIP que nous explorons est le rôle ambigu du résident en tant qu’étudiant et praticien. Dans des situations éthiquement difficiles, l’adhésion aux messages du programme caché est influencée et influence le fait que les résidents agissent en tant qu’étudiants, praticiens ou les deux. Cet article décrit le curriculum caché en action et en interaction avec le FIP. Notre analyse offre une perspective empirique complémentaire à la littérature théorique concernant le FIP dans l’enseignement médical. Cette littérature tend à faire de la prise de décisions éthiques saines le résultat final du FIP. Notre analyse souligne que le mécanisme fonctionne dans les deux sens: la façon dont les résidents réagissent au curriculum caché en éthique peut être un moteur de la formation de l’identité professionnelle.
Mots-clés :
- formation de l’identité professionnelle (FIP),
- éthique,
- curriculum caché,
- formation postuniversitaire,
- psychiatrie,
- résidents
Download the article in PDF to read it.
Download
Appendices
Acknowledgements / Remerciements
The authors wish to acknowledge, with gratitude, the participation of the many residents and faculty in both programs. The research that forms the basis of this paper was supported by a Medical Education Research Grant awarded by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada.
Les auteurs tiennent à remercier, avec gratitude, la participation des nombreux résidents et professeurs aux deux programmes. La recherche qui constitue la base de cet article a été soutenue par une subvention de recherche en éducation médicale décernée par le Collège royal des médecins et chirurgiens du Canada.
Bibliography
- 1. Cruess RL, Cruess SR, Steinert Y. Amending Miller’s Pyramid to include professional identity formation. Academic Medicine. 2016;91(2):180–5.
- 2. Ogle K, Sullivan W, Yeo M. Ethics in Family Medicine: Faculty Handbook. Missisauga, ON: October 2012.
- 3. CanRAC. General Standards of Accreditation for Residency Programs. Ottawa, ON: CanRAC; 2018. Standard 3.1.1.2, p. 9.
- 4. Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. Online bioethics curriculum. Accessed May 28, 2019.
- 5. Forrow L, Arnold RM, Frader J. Teaching clinical ethics in the residency years: Preparing competent professionals. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy. 1991;16:93-112.
- 6. Hafferty FW, Franks R. The hidden curriculum, ethics teaching, and the structure of medical education. Academic Medicine. 1994;69:861-871.
- 7. Hafferty FW. Beyond curriculum reform: confronting medicine’s hidden curriculum. Academic Medicine. 1998;73:403-407.
- 8. Feudtner C, Christakis DA, Christakis NA. Do clinical clerks suffer ethical erosion? Students’ perceptions of their ethical environment and personal development. Academic Medicine. 1994; 69:670-679.
- 9. Igartua KJ. The impact of impaired supervisors on residents. Academic Psychiatry. 2000;24:188-194.
- 10. Patenaude J, Niyonsenga T, Fafard D. Changes in students’ moral development during medical school: a cohort study. CMAJ. 2003;168:840-844.
- 11. Hundert EM. Characteristics of the Informal Curriculum and Trainees’ Ethical Choices. Academic Medicine. 1996;71:624-633.
- 12. The Future of Medical Education - Postgraduate Project Report. A Collective Vision for Postgraduate Medical Education. 2012.
- 13. Karnieli T, Vu R, Holtman M, Clyman SG, Inui TS . Medical students’ professionalism narratives: a window on the informal and hidden curriculum. Academic Medicine. 2010;85:124-133.
- 14. Lamiani G, Leone D, Meyer EC, Moja EA. How Italian students learn to become physicians: A qualitative study of the hidden curriculum. Medical Teacher. 2011;33:989-996.
- 15. Wear D, Skillicorn J. Hidden in plain sight: the formal, informal, and hidden curricula of a psychiatry clerkship. Academic Medicine. 2009;84:451-458.
- 16. Lempp H, Seale C. The hidden curriculum in undergraduate medical education: qualitative study of medical students’ perceptions of teaching. BMJ. 2004;329:770-773.
- 17. Van Deven T, Hibbert K, Faden L, Chhem RK. The hidden curriculum in radiology residency programs: A path to isolation or integration? European Journal of Radiology. 2013;82:883-887.
- 18. Creswell JW. Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005.
- 19. Hatch JA. Doing qualitative research in education settings. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.
- 20. Baxter P, Jack S. Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. Qualitative Report. 2008;13:544-559.
- 21. Stake RE. The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1995.
- 22. Yin RK. Case study research: Design and methods, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; 2003.
- 23. Bogden RC, Bilken SK. Qualitative research in education: An introduction to theories and methods, 4th ed. New York: Allyn and Bacon; 2003.
- 24. Creswell JW. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; 1997.
- 25. Miles MB, Huberman AM. Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications; 1994.
- 26. Gupta M, Forlini C, Lenton K, Duchen R, Lohfeld L. The hidden ethics curriculum in two Canadian psychiatry residency programs: a qualitative study. Academic Psychiatry. 2016;40(4):592–9.
- 27. Hafferty FW, Michalec B, Martimianakis MA (Tina), Tilburt JC. Alternative framings, countervailing visions: locating the “p” in professional identity formation. Academic Medicine. 2016;91(2):171–4.
- 28. Cruess RL, Cruess SR, Boudreau JD, Snell L, Steinert Y. A schematic representation of the professional identity formation and socialization of medical students and residents: a guide for medical educators. Academic Medicine. 2015;90(6):718–25.
- 29. MacLeod A. Caring, competence and professional identities in medical education. Advances in Health Sciences Education. 2011;16(3):375–94.
- 30. Jarvis-Selinger S, Pratt DD, Regehr G. Competency is not enough: integrating identity formation into the medical education discourse. Academic medicine. 2012 Sep;87(9):1185–90.
- 31. O’Brien BC, Irby DM. Enacting the Carnegie Foundation call for reform of medical school and residency. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 2013;25(sup1):s1–8.
- 32. Hamstra SJ, Woodrow SI, Mangrulkar RS. Feeling pressure to stay late: socialisation and professional identity formation in graduate medical education: commentaries. Medical Education. 2007;42(1):7–9.
- 33. Benner P. Formation in professional education: an examination of the relationship between theories of meaning and theories of the self. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy. 2011;36(4):342–53.
- 34. Slotnick HB. How doctors learn: education and learning across the medical-school-to-practice trajectory. Academic Medicine. 2001;76(10):1013–26.
- 35. Forsythe GB. Identity development in professional education. Academic Medicine. 2005;80(10 Suppl):S112-117.
- 36. Rosenblum ND, Kluijtmans M, ten Cate O. Professional identity formation and the clinician–scientist: a paradigm for a clinical career combining two distinct disciplines. Academic Medicine. 2016 Dec;91(12):1612–7.
- 37. Holden M, Buck E, Clark M, Szauter K, Trumble j. Professional identity formation in medical education: the convergence of multiple domains. HEC Forum. 2012;24(4):245–55.
- 38. Wald HS. Professional identity (trans)formation in medical education: reflection, relationship, resilience. Academic Medicine. 2015;90(6):701–6.
- 39. Cruess RL, Cruess SR, Boudreau JD, Snell L, Steinert Y. Reframing medical education to support professional identity formation. Academic Medicine. 2014;89(11):1446–51.
- 40. Sajisevi M, Wilken R, Lee WT. The role of professional identity formation in balancing residency service versus educational needs. Journal of Graduate Medical Education. 2016;8(2):154–5.
- 41. Pratt MG, Rockmann KW, Kaufmann JB. Constructing professional identity: the role of work and identity learning cycles in the customization of identity among medical residents. The Academy of Management Journal. 2006;49(2):235–62.
- 42. Nothnagle M, Reis S, Goldman RE, Anandarajah G. Fostering professional formation in residency: development and evaluation of the “forum” seminar series. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 2014;26(3):230–8.
- 43. Phillips SP, Dalgarno N. Professionalism, professionalization, expertise and compassion: a qualitative study of medical residents. BMC Medical Education. 2017;17(1).
- 44. Foster K, Roberts C. The heroic and the villainous: a qualitative study characterising the role models that shaped senior doctors’ professional identity. BMC Medical Education. 2016;16(1).
- 45. Kasman DL. Socialization in medical training: exploring “lifelong curiosity” and a “community of support.” American Journal of Bioethics. 2004;4(2):52–5.
- 46. de Groot L. Pliable but not receptive: concerning the marginal influence of a medical psychology course on the socialization process of doctors. Medical Education. 1987;21(5):419–25.
- 47. Vivekananda-Schmidt P, Crossley J, Murdoch-Eaton D. A model of professional self-identity formation in student doctors and dentists: a mixed method study. BMC Medical Education. 2015;15(1).
- 48. Coulehan J, Williams PC. Vanquishing virtue: the impact of medical education. Academic Medicine. 2001;76(6):598–605.
- 49. Kelly AM, Mullan PB. Designing a curriculum for professionalism and ethics within radiology. Academic Radiology. 2018;25(5):610–8.
- 50. Burford B. Group processes in medical education: learning from social identity theory: Social identity theory in medical education. Medical Education. 2012;46(2):143–52.
- 51. Hoop JG. Hidden ethical dilemmas in psychiatric residency training: the psychiatry resident as dual agent. Academic Psychiatry. 2004;28(3):183–9.