Abstracts
Résumé
La politique linguistique de l’Inde, État plurilingue par excellence, se veut inclusive jusqu’aux langues les plus minoritaires avec une application multidirectionnelle de la traduction administrative protégée par la loi. En réalité cette politique est hiérarchisée. Elle met en avant l’hindi parmi les langues régionales et n’est pas appliquée pour de nombreuses minorités. Ceci transparaît dans les initiatives public/privé qui développent à grands pas depuis 2020 la localisation des technologies numériques pour les langues vernaculaires. La combinaison de traduction est le plus souvent de l’anglais vers les autres langues selon un ordre récurrent (hindi, puis les sept premières langues régionales, puis les autres langues répertoriées), indiquant la prééminence de l’anglais et la place symbolique des autres langues dans cette hiérarchie. Cette valorisation de la maîtrise des langues « du sommet » de la pyramide n’incite pas au développement de la traduction dans les langues minoritaires ou même entre « langues répertoriées » autres que l’hindi. De plus, la politique de traduction actuelle ne définit pas précisément les critères de sa mise en œuvre. Par ailleurs, depuis près de 10 ans, l’Inde a choisi de miser sur le développement de son économie par le numérique. Les internautes non anglophones constituent un marché gigantesque pour le secteur privé et un vivier de compétences pour peu qu’ils puissent accéder aux savoirs dispensés jusqu’ici en anglais. Ce développement vers les langues indiennes répond aussi à l’idéologie nationaliste prônée par le gouvernement en place. L’exemple de la diffusion de l’information lors de la pandémie du COVID-19 montre cependant que les langues des minorités les plus fragiles n’ont pas été prises en compte. Pourtant, les nouvelles technologies de l’information, en particulier l’IA, peuvent pourtant devenir des alliées dans la préservation et la traduction des langues minoritaires.
Mots-clés :
- politique linguistique,
- Asie du Sud,
- numérique,
- traduction,
- langues peu dotées
Abstract
The language policy of India, a multilingual state par excellence, is intended to be inclusive, right down to the most minority languages, with a multidirectional application of administrative translation protected by law. In reality, this policy is hierarchical. It gives pride of place to Hindi among regional languages, and is not applied to many minorities. This is reflected in the public/private initiatives that have been developing digital localization technologies for vernacular languages at a rapid pace since 2020. The combination of translation is most often from English to other languages in a recurring order (Hindi, then the first seven regional languages, then the other listed languages), indicating the pre-eminence of English and the symbolic place of other languages in this hierarchy. This emphasis on mastery of the languages “at the top” of the pyramid does not encourage the development of translation into minority languages, or even between “listed languages” other than Hindi. What’s more, the current translation policy does not precisely define the criteria for its implementation. Moreover, for almost 10 years now, India has been banking on the development of its economy through digital technology. Non-English-speaking Internet users represent a gigantic market for the private sector, as well as a pool of skills, provided they can access the knowledge hitherto dispensed in English. This development towards Indian languages also reflects the nationalist ideology advocated by the current government. The example of the dissemination of information during the COVID-19 pandemic shows, however, that the languages of the most vulnerable minorities were not taken into account. And yet, new information technologies, particularly AI, can become allies in preserving and translating minority languages.
Keywords:
- language policy,
- South Asia,
- digitization,
- translation,
- low-resource language
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Berti, Daniela. Regimes of Legality. Ethnography of Criminal Cases in South Asia. OUP, 2015.
- Bhatia, Tej K. et William C. Ritchie. « Bilingualism in South Asia. » The Handbook of Bilingualism, 2004, pp. 780–807.
- Center for Endangered Languages (CFEL), Progress Report 2014–2018, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, 2018.
- Gokul, Karthik Kumar et al. « Towards Building Text-to-Speech Systems for the Next Billion Users. » ICASP, 2023, https://arxiv.org/pdf/2211.09536.
- Gouvernement indien. Official Languages Rules, 1976.
- Khubchandani, Lachman M. « Languages of Instruction in Plurilingual India. » International Review of Education, vol. 24, no. 3, 1978, pp. 75–80.
- Khubchandani, Lachman M., « Multilingual societies: Issues of identity and communication. » Sociolinguistics, vol. 16, no 1, 1986, pp. 20-34.
- Mohanty, Ajit K. « Languages, inequality and marginalization: implications of the double divide in Indian multilingualism. » International Journal of Sociology of Languages, no. 205, 2010, pp. 131-154.
- Montaut, Annie. « L’anglais en Inde et la place de l’élite dans le projet national. » Hérodote, vol. 4, no. 115, 2004, pp. 63-89.
- Pandit, Prabodh Bechardas. Language in a plural society: the case of India. Channa Memorial Committee, 1977.
- Sanu, Sankrant. The English Medium Myth: Dismantling Barriers to India's Growth. Garuda Prakashan Private Limited, 2018.
- UNESCO. Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, 2010.
- « Adivasi Lives Matter, Safety Against COVID-19. » Facebook, Towards Building Text-to-Speech Systems For the Next Billion Users.https://www.facebook.com/AdivasiLivesMatter/posts/827595691049916?__tn__=-R.
- Aggarwal, Ankit. Road To 2022: The Increasing Appetite for Vernacular Content. Social Samosa, 2022, https://www.socialsamosa.com/2022/01/road-to-2022-increasing-appetite-vernacular-content/.
- Akademi, Sahitya. Annual Report. http://sahitya-akademi.gov.in.
- Anand, Sarika et Bajj, Apoorva. Koo: The Rise and Shutdown of India’s Homegrown Microblogging Platform. Startup Talky.com, https://startuptalky.com/koo-success-story/.
- Anastapopoulos et al. « TICO-19: the Translation Initiative for COVID-19. » Carnegie Mellon University, 2020, https://arxiv.org/pdf/2007.01788.
- An Informed Citizen. Tapping The Power Of Language: Vernacular Media Apps Are On The Rise. Youth Ki Awaz, 2019, https://www.youthkiawaaz.com/2019/08/tapping-the-language-power-vernacular-media-apps-and-their-issues/.
- Abhishek, Chauhan et al. Vernacular is NOW, not the future. Redseer, 2019, https://redseer.com/reports/vernacular-is-now-not-the-future-a-300-bn-opportunity-today/.
- Bhasha Daan. Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, National Language Translation Mission, Bhasha Daan, https://bhashini.gov.in/bhashadaan/en/home.
- Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology. Shabd, https://shabd.education.gov.in/.
- COVID-19 Myth Busters in World Languages, 2022, https://covid-no-mb.org/.
- Das Shouvik. The Next Billion: 25 Years In, Vernacular India to Give Our Internet a New Path. News 18, 2020, https://www.news18.com/news/tech/the-next-billion-25-years-in-vernacular-india-to-give-our-internet-a-new-path-2783649.html.
- Data Leads. « Media Consumption. » Media Monitor Ownership India, 2019, https://india.mom-rsf.org/en/context/media-consumption/.
- Data Peportal, Digital 2024: India, datareportal.com/reports/digital-2024-indiac.
- Devnagri, https://devnagri.com/.
- Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons et Charles D. Fennig, éditeurs. Ethnologue : Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. SIL International, 2022. https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/countries-most-languages/.
- IIT Bombay. Udaan project, 2022, https://udaanproject.org/AboutUs.
- KPMG/Google. Indian Languages—Defining India’s Internet. avril 2017, https://kpmg.com/ky/en/home/insights_new/2017/04/indian-language-internet-users.html.
- Ministry of Education, Linguistic Data Consortium for Indian Languages. Datasets (Linguistic Resources). LDC-IL, https://www.ldcil.org/.
- Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, National Language Translation Mission. Digital India Bhashini. https://bhashini.gov.in/.
- National Science Foundation: Endangered Language Project. COVID-19 Information in Indigenous, Endangered, and Under-Resourced Languages, https://endangeredlanguagesproject.github.io/COVID-19/.
- Organisation Mondiale de la Santé. VirALLanguages, 2020, https://virallanguages.org/fr/accueil/OMS.
- ShareChat. About, https://sharechat.com/about.
- Vernacular Newsline—Indian Regional Newspapers. Non Resident Indians Online, https://www.nriol.com/news/newsline/vernacular.asp.
- « What Is Chingari And Why Is It So Popular In India? » Chingari, 2020, https://blog.chingari.io/what-is-chingari-and-why-is-it-so-popular-in-india/.
- Wikipedia. List of Wikipedias, https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias.